Cover image derived from the 1533 title page of The Apology of Sir Thomas More. 0 Catholic and Protestant Martyrdom in Tudor England, c.1530-1600. Name: Nick K. Crown. Supervisors: Silvia Evangelisti, Jess Sharkey. University of East Anglia Registration Number: 4915887. This Doctoral Thesis is dedicated to my parents, and also to the memory of my Grandparents and my sister Emma. 1. 2. [Fig.1]: Engraving of Queen Elizabeth with Latin poem exalting the Tudor monarchy, 1588. The text, written by Catholic priest-turned-spy William Tedder for his new Anglican employers, attributes Elizabeth’s goddess-like benevolence and omnipotence to divine patronage, and portrays her ability to protect England from cruel, deceitful and violent conspirators as confirmation of her right to wield her father’s sceptre. [Fig.2]: Self-illustration of Bishop Bale presenting his 1551 Acts or Unchaste Examples of English Votaries to the eager scholar Edward VI. Bale’s bowed head and bended knee were gestures intended to imply that far from being disorderly, Protestants safeguarded the post-schism Tudor monarchy. As in John Foxe’s later Acts and Monuments, early reformist courtiers were depicted as humble servants and selfless teachers seeking not to exploit the King for personal gain, but strengthen his authority through centralisation and standardisation of proto-Anglican doctrine. 1 Catholic and Protestant Martyrdom in Tudor England. Contents. Index of Illustrations. 3 Introduction. 4 Chapter 1: Sainthood and the Elect. 13 Chapter 2: Gender and Martyrdom. 52 Chapter 3: Introduction to Non-Martyrs. 93 Chapter 4: The Non-Martyr as an Enemy of the Elect. 123 Chapter 5: Representations of Supportive and Hostile Crowds. 157 Chapter 6: Popular Beliefs and the Supernatural. 182 Conclusion. 217 Primary Sources, Manuscript. 224 Primary Sources, Printed. 230 Bibliography. 285 3. 4 [Fig.3]: Illustration from Foxe’s Acts and Monuments depicts Archbishop Cranmer punishing himself for recanting by thrusting his own hand into the flames. Some members of the crowd appear awed or horrified by the spectacle, while others are portrayed as faceless and anonymous parts of a greater collective entity. [Fig.4]: Burning of Henrician gentleman Collins. For Foxe, who made extensive use of animalistic puns to dehumanise Marian Catholics, the implication was that the loyal dog was a better Christian than the vicious, dishonourable and self-serving priests. The expense and effort of including so many detailed, printed illustrations highlighted the importance that Foxe and royal printer John Day attached to this semi-official martyrology: not only as a reference tool for the clergy and learned secular elite, but also as a means to instruct semi-literate low-status laypeople of the English confessional state’s exclusivity. 2 Catholic and Protestant Martyrdom in Tudor England. Index of Illustrations. [Fig.1]: Queen Elizabeth ................................................................................................................................................. 1 [Fig.2]: Bishop Bale presenting a book to Edward VI ..................................................................................................... 1 [Fig.3]: Archbishop Cranmer ........................................................................................................................................... 2 [Fig.4]: Burning of Collins ............................................................................................................................................... 2 [Fig.5]: The Pope as Antichrist........................................................................................................................................ 3 [Fig.6]:Hanging of Jesuits .............................................................................................................................................. 10 [Fig.7]: Sir Thomas More .............................................................................................................................................. 10 [Fig.8]: Anne Askew as a Saint and Scholar. ............................................................................................................... 39 [Fig.9]: Henry VIII as King David............................................................................................................................... 39 [Fig.10]: Margaret Clitheroe .......................................................................................................................................... 79 [Fig.11]: Perotine Massey .............................................................................................................................................. 79 [Fig.12]: Torture of Catholic Prisoners ......................................................................................................................... 113 [Fig.13]: Bishop Bonner ............................................................................................................................................... 146 [Fig.14]: Edmund Jennings’ Execution ........................................................................................................................ 173 [Fig.15]: Burial of Protestant Relics ............................................................................................................................. 173 [Fig.16]: Sympathetic Protestant Crowds...................................................................................................................... 173 [Fig.17]: Mary Stuart’s Pearls ..................................................................................................................................... 204 [Fig.18]: Beheading of Mary Stuart ............................................................................................................................. 204 [Fig.19]: Death of an Apostate .................................................................................................................................... 205 [Fig.20]: Hanging of Iconoclasts ................................................................................................................................... 205 [Fig.21]: Bishop Gardiner’s Tomb ............................................................................................................................... 223 [Fig.22]: Burning of Protestants ................................................................................................................................... 223 5. [Fig.5]: Image from Burton’s Fiery Tryall of God’s Saints depicting the Pope, as Antichrist astride the seven-headed Beast of Revelation, ordering priests and lay-Catholics to assassinate their monarch. 3 Catholic and Protestant Martyrdom in Tudor England. Introduction. As the first in-depth evaluation of its type since the research of Dickens and McGrath during the 1960s, this dissertation will compare printed portrayals of 16th-century English Catholic and Protestant martyrs, (derived from the Greek word for early Christian witnesses to the truth) who allegedly “died for their confession of Christ.”1 Although not interdisciplinary, my research will synthesise select concepts from other disciplines, especially gender studies; death studies; and post-structuralist discussions regarding the use of fear in maintaining order. Besides the comparative evaluation, I will discuss allegorical, politicised depictions of Catholic or Protestant martyrs and their persecutors: especially the heroic masculinised woman; the inferior feminised man; and the empowered or dehumanised animal. Novel contributions to the historiography include my proposal in Chapter 1 that Catholic and Protestant depictions of martyrdom generally represented adaptation and evolution (also revisited in parts of Chapters 2 and 6); and the use of opposite, negative gender based characteristics to attack rival sects in Chapters 2-4. Most importantly, however, I will discuss the importance of fear (if not of punishment, then of chaos, or for the reputation of one’s religious group) in shaping the perceptions of post-1558 Catholic, Anglican and Puritan martyrologists who wrote not only the so-called apologies that countered criticisms of their own group, but also propaganda intended to discredit their rivals.2 This is particularly evident in Chapters 4-6 where Protestants adapted Scripture to equate the post-schism Tudor monarchy with a vengeful and omnipotent God (and vice-versa), because not only was the ruler believed to be a mirror image of God (as Derrida claimed); but God himself was depicted as a terrifying king, judge and patriarch.3 The study of martyrdom during the English Reformation is important, because memories of earlier persecutions formulated post-1558 efforts to create a unique Anglican identity underpinned by the representation of England as the new Israel; and rejection of superfluous Roman Catholic rituals as alien idolatry.4 As part of this xenophobic English Protestant identity, Elizabethan reformers believed the Antichrist represented not one man, but the institution of the Papacy itself, whose interference threatened official efforts to create an independent godly state with Bible-based secular laws. [fig.5] Henry VIII’s schism from Pope Clement VII translated into Edwardian and Elizabethan fear of later Bishops of Rome, especially Julius III who sent Cardinal Pole to oversee the Marian persecutions; Pius V who excommunicated Elizabeth; and Sixtus V who financed the Spanish Armada and allegedly encouraged fugitive English priests to write propaganda endorsing rebellion against the monarch. According to Whiting, popular responses to the Tudor Reformation varied, depending on individual interpretations of loyalty; Catholics, distrustful of innovation, longed to re-establish their forefathers’ religion, while Protestants believed Elizabethan Anglicanism restored uncorrupted early Christian values.5 Long after physical remnants of pre-Reformation worship were abandoned or defaced, Catholics and Protestants executed by previous regimes were posthumously honoured as martyrs for their Christ-like self-sacrifice.6 The books chronicling martyrs’ lives, known as martyrologies, were written to confirm a religious group’s collective claim to be God’s chosen elect, which, depending on confessional identity, could be defined as Puritan Israelites; mainstream Anglicans seeking to restore the uncorrupted early church; or Catholics 4 Introduction. who believed the Pope’s jurisdiction over religious matters overruled the secular monarch. In a post- structuralist historiography, the definition of a Catholic or Protestant can be problematic, especially since Puritanism, or hotter Protestantism, initially represented not a religious group, but a mind-set within the Anglican Church. Conformist Puritans called themselves “the godly”7 and demanded further internal church reforms to remove surviving pre-Reformation rituals equated with so-called popish superstition, including clerical vestments; transubstantiation; religious images; Latin prayers, and the church hierarchy dominated by bishops. For the reader’s benefit, I will loosely categorise martyrologists under the following definitions of my own construction depending on the degree of radicalism or conservatism: I. In Tudor times, Roman Catholics were known as papists for continuing to pledge allegiance to the Pope rather than acknowledge the monarch as head of the church. Under Queen Mary, conservatives who had outwardly conformed to the Henrician Church of England eagerly reconciled with Rome, and deemed the burning of heretics a spiritual cleansing vital for England’s long-term survival. II. The second type of Catholic, active after Mary’s 1558 death, comprised lay-recusants who rejected the restored Church of England, and exiled Marian priests including Cardinal Allen, Thomas Harding, Nicholas Sander, or Thomas Darbishire. From the 1570s-1600s, younger priests, born after the Marian persecutions and trained in foreign seminaries, infiltrated England to re-convert the laity. These Counter-Reformation missionaries included moderate secular priests unaffiliated with a religious order, and radical Jesuits from the Society of Jesus. III. The word Anglican was originally derived from “Ecclesia Anglicana:”8 the Latin name for the pre-Reformation branch of the Church in England. Later historians applied this term to the post-schism Church of England, although the contemporaries of Henry, Edward and Elizabeth generally called their church the Established Church; or the true, uncorrupted Catholic Church distinct from both foreign Protestantism and so-called popish idolatry. Within this thesis, Anglicans are categorised as moderate, conforming members of the independent post-1533 Church of England who accepted royal church supremacy. These included Protestant reformers influenced by Luther or Zwingli; and conservative High Church clergy who envisioned a form of Catholicism without the Pope. The latter concept was implemented by Henry VIII and, initially, Elizabeth, before her advisers persuaded her to impose increasingly Protestant reforms during the 1560s as a means of centralisation and social control. Conservative Anglicans were distinct from church-papists: Elizabethan lay-Catholics who attended both Latin Mass and Anglican services, and deemed Queen and Pope equally important leaders with separate functions. IV. Radical Elizabethan Calvinists, known as Puritans because of their desire to purify church and secular society, included the enthusiastic godly faction of the Anglican 5 Catholic and Protestant Martyrdom in Tudor England. Church embodied by Lincolnshire preacher John Foxe; conforming Presbyterians opposed to the bishops but fearful of government retribution; and the small, persecuted separatist flocks of Henry Barrow, Robert Browne or John Penry. Conformist Puritans often co-opted, and allegorically repurposed, familiar concepts associated with the theatre; deference to the monarch; and pre-Reformation mysticism, to promote Old Testament values for a mass audience. Regarding depictions of martyrdom in England, the recent historical debate, or historiography, encompasses a division: older historians argued that the Henrician and Edwardian church reforms signified not an “act of state imposed upon a hitherto contented Catholic people,”9 but a progressive, inevitable break with the past involving reformist officials imposing change from above, and lower- ranking religious radicals infiltrating the breakaway church to advance their own agenda. Dickens believed the volume of entries in Foxe’s Acts and Monuments confirmed that many formerly Lollard commoners willingly converted to proto-Protestantism due to the pre-Reformation church’s apparent stagnation. The prevalent school of thought, however, suggests the English Reformation was primarily a period of continuity; O’Day, Rosendale and Duffy argued that Catholic and Protestant martyrologists co-opted pre- Reformation accounts of the early Christians’ austere lives firstly to legitimise recent martyrs as defenders of the current status quo; and secondly to demonise prohibited religious groups or sects (as they were termed in government proclamations) as disorderly.10 These historians deem the Tudor Reformation a “difficult, drawn out process”11 because, despite resenting clergymen’s abuse of power, Henrician laypeople were generally conservative and feared upheaval.12 Scarisbrick, one of the leading historians of his time, compared the Elizabethan recusant household’s secret masses and family prayers with the Marian Protestant goal of a “lay dominated, de-institutionalised church of the Diaspora”13 operating in defiance of Papal agents by preserving religious observances, education and culture.14 My research expands upon Scarisbrick, Duffy and Pettegree’s work by discussing not only female activism, but also the exclusively male teacher-student relationships, where younger missionary priests or Protestants were depicted as the apprentices of earlier martyrs. These scholars were at a transitional stage between boy and man because they had not yet established themselves in what Habermas calls the public sphere (church, economy or politics), where a man was defined by his employment, marital status, age, respectability, social class, and credibility among his peers.15 Before the rise of science, religion was used to justify secular laws; explain unexpected phenomena; and portray the monarch not as a puppet of self-serving advisers, but as a rational and powerful representative of God. Although Tudor policy was formulated and implemented by Privy Councillors responding to petitions from Parliament, there was a need to credit the ruler as the omnipotent driving force behind reform. My definition of Government includes Lords serving as royal advisers; MPs in the House of Commons with regional power; and bishops charged with church governance, all of whom deemed themselves “tireless servants of the public interest”16 defending royal authority from malevolent conspiracies by “rebellious and profane”17 Protestants, or stubborn papists.18 In my own reinterpretation 6 Introduction. of Freud’s Oedipus Complex, the persecutions can be represented as an allegorical conflict for dominance between older patriarchs and the younger generation.19 1. The Marian and Elizabethan regimes represented austere father figures dominating the mother figures of church and country; 2. The prohibited sects collectively represented dangerous youthful and virile usurpers; and 3. The commoners represented innocent children whom martyr and persecutor sought to convert. Walter argued that Tudor governments were terrified of criminals who failed to admit their guilt and appear humble at their execution, because such insolence challenged the wisdom of elders, masters and local officials enforcing the authority of an allegedly infallible monarchy.20 In a general early modern European context, French philosopher Foucault suggested that rulers maintained order by exploiting existing divisions in society, because their own grip on power was comparatively weak.21 Gatrell’s research focused upon the decline of public executions due to their degradation into entertainment. He argued that before the 18th-century, English lawmakers relied upon terrifying subjects into compliance with gruesome, exemplary ritualised punishments intended to demonstrate the state’s power over a dehumanised criminal’s body.22 By applying Foucault and Gatrell’s concepts to Tudor England, I will discuss official efforts to formulate approved social norms by centralising secular and church hierarchy around the monarch; and by using printed texts and physical coercion to literally (and allegorically) emasculate and undermine dissidents.23 Although it may be tempting for modern readers to draw superficial parallels between the Tudor persecutions; 20th-century dictatorships; and 21st-century fear of terrorism, it must be remembered that the past represented a different culture, with no separation between Church and State. Although modern and early modern zealots (Islamist suicide bombers and Jesuits actively seeking execution) used their final moments to attest “not only to the depth of their own religious convictions, but these convictions’ absolute truth,”24 the official response differed due to the Tudor government’s willingness to indiscriminately punish entire religious minorities for the actions of a few extremists. Unlike modern totalitarian dictatorships, Tudor England lacked a secret police, and instead relied upon its monopoly over education and its ability to convince commoners to outwardly accept propagandistic claims that the regime passed laws primarily to protect the people from real or imagined conspiracies by internal foes.25 Sharpe attributes the theatrical spectacle of public executions to a centralising government's desire to formulate sentiments of civic duty, by providing the people with examples of behaviour to avoid; and by using prisoners’ forced recantations to reassert royal prestige.26 Lake suggests the mixed response from Tudor gallows crowds reflected a divided society with three factions: the “Catholic, Protestant, and popular,”27 the third group being interested primarily in the executions’ entertainment potential.28 Regardless of whether the crowd responded to the executions with sympathy or hostility, their reactions were useful for Catholic and Protestant martyrologists seeking either to prove the beliefs of the rightful church were already widespread under the previous regime; or, alternatively, exalt a martyr’s triumph over adversity.29 Death Studies is an emerging historical discipline that studies Medieval and early modern attitudes to the physical corpse; the supernatural; representations of funerary monuments; and the posthumous commemoration of deceased individuals. In my own interpretation of this new research 7 Catholic and Protestant Martyrdom in Tudor England. field, I will propose that Jesuit, Anglican and Puritan representations of persecutors being tormented by disease or madness attributed to a wrathful God are analogous to Gatrell and Foucault’s models of the government restoring normality by breaking criminals’ bodies to deprive them of an afterlife; destroy any remnants of their earthly presence; and hold them accountable for their earlier transgressions. Unlike modern historians who treat the past as a different culture, Elizabethan Catholic, Anglican and Puritan martyrologists actively linked their own ideology with the personal beliefs of martyred pre- Reformation forebears, in order to gain reassurance from familiar historical patterns; justify seemingly new doctrine as the restoration of ancient, uncorrupted beliefs; and prove the collective post-persecution congregation’s worthiness. Influenced by Walsham’s discussion of the repurposing of sacred inanimate objects by later generations, I will propose that post-1558 Anglican depictions of martyrdom generally represented adaptation, intended to unify readers around the Trinity of God, monarch and country.30 Concurrent with Plank’s research on the late 17th-century conquest of the New World, younger Puritans and Anglicans found solidarity in their pledge of allegiance to the monarch, and subscription to a “broadly defined”31 concept of Bible-based Protestantism centred on rejecting foreign beliefs and cultures as uncivilised or unchristian. Elizabethan Protestant depictions of martyrs as saints could be literal, incorporating mystical Catholic style prophesies and miracles; or allegorical, where returning exiles discouraged the veneration of any being apart from God, and focused primarily upon the virtuous lives of pre-Reformation saints, Old Testament prophets, and contemporary martyrs. Woolf suggests Catholics were constrained by regulations from Rome because rejection of the church's mystical Medieval past risked discrediting Papal claims of infallibility.32 Nevertheless, this does not mean that Catholicism was backward, reactionary and anachronistic: conversely, I will propose that Henrician Humanists and Elizabethan Jesuits prized textual evidence to support their views, and frequently reinterpreted extracts from rival martyrologies to brand the Church of England weak and disorderly. For example, Jesuits countered Puritan concepts of an Elizabethan Protestant Zion, by equating England with a declining and corrupted Israel for missionary priests to re-convert and civilise in imitation of the original saints. The language of inversion, or opposites, was used by martyrologists to not only divert readers’ attention from earlier martyrs’ alleged shortcomings, but also to define the contemporary Catholic or Protestant religious identity in gender based terms of “diametrically opposed extremes.”33 This entailed the contrasting of one’s own heroic and humble martyrs with rival claimants’ reputed bestial or feminised sexual depravity, cruelty and treachery that rendered them out-of-place in a society that favoured “age over youth, master over servant and man over woman.”34 By applying negative character traits to other religious groups, Catholic and Protestant martyrologists could not only brand earlier persecutors unfit to rule; but also claim that God continued to smite the wicked enemies of his chosen people as he did on behalf of their Israelite or early Christian forebears.35 Feminist historian Macek deems Puritan martyrologists like Foxe misogynistic for depicting women as dependent on an unseen male God, if not on earthly patriarchs, in order to deter contemporary female preaching.36 Harrison also suggests that post- Reformation gender roles remained unchanged; when speaking at their trial Protestant women, separated 8 Introduction. from their patriarch, sought not to challenge the hierarchy, but to defend their faith from an “undesired public audience.”37 Expanding upon these historians’ initial work on motivations for religious conformity, the third and fourth chapters will discuss an entirely new research field: individuals I term failed martyrs or non-martyrs, who were forced to choose between the two objectionable acts of betraying their faith, or disobeying their monarch. I will argue that two distinct types of non-martyr existed in martyrologies; some were viewed sympathetically, as powerless, weak prisoners deprived of a glorious end. Others were branded willing, mercenary collaborators whose alleged criminality made them the antithesis of the ideal Christian, and highlighted the inferiority of Elizabethan Anglicanism or Marian popery (the supposed idolatrous worship of the Bishop of Rome and powerless images of the saints in place of Christ). One important theme discussed throughout this thesis is the representation of the persecutions as a spiritual war or test of faith, where the deaths of early martyrs were retrospectively interpreted by later generations as confirmation of the Catholic or Anglican Church’s inherent truth, and other sects’ error.38 In his early Catholic-Protestant comparison, McGrath proposed that recusants and Puritans comprised a small minority of the population: 5% for Catholics and 2% for Puritans, further complicated by widespread outward conformity, and by local officials’ inability to enforce Elizabeth’s church reforms in remote areas.39 Dickens drew many parallels between Puritan ministers and Jesuits: both were self- educated, preached openly, and prepared themselves for death through prayer, meditation and fasting. Both relied on converting conformist lay-Anglicans, and both groups desired to become closer to God by overcoming adversity.40 Marshall, Monta and Green suggest that popular perceptions of martyrdom were shaped by pre-Reformation notions of religious space: just as the church was a sacred liminal area separate from everyday life, death represented not the end, but a journey into a “strange country”41 where the dead would regenerate into heavenly beings.42 Expanding upon these existing concepts, I will argue that there was much adaptation in Protestant depictions of martyrdom, where the fire, dark smoke and sulphurous fumes from the gunpowder kegs were deemed not hellish, but holy flames purifying a sacrificial lamb.43 This opens a new field of comparative study: the repurposing of empowering and dehumanising animalistic depictions by English Catholic and Protestant martyrologists. Taking an objective, religiously neutral viewpoint, the following chapter will discuss evolving perceptions of martyrdom among literate Catholics, Anglicans, and Puritans who deemed the Tudor period a battle for England’s salvation, between God’s chosen elect, and deviant members of the wicked “apostate church.”44 My primary sources comprise mostly narrative printed texts from the years preceding the Henrician Reformation until the 1600s, written by Catholics attacking the post-schism Anglican regime’s legitimacy, and by Protestants seeking to justify further church reform under Elizabeth’s successor, King James. Due to my linguistic limitations, I am restricted mostly to English documents, including microfilms; 16th-century printed transcripts of martyrs’ letters; and modern translations of foreign language sources, including the Catholic Record Society’s publications of Elizabethan priests’ Latin letters stored overseas, or privately. When available, however, I have used handwritten manuscripts held at Norwich Record Office; the University of East Anglia; British Library; Early English Books Online; and 9