VOL. 44, NO. 1 (FEBRUARY 2003) VOL. 44, NO. 2 (APRIL 2003) Why Restaurant Firms Franchise: An Analysis of Two Possible The Value of Theoretical Research and Applied Research for the Explanations, by Vera L. Hoover, David J. Ketchen, Jr., and James G. Hospitality Industry, by James R. Van Scotter and Patrick E. Culligan; Combs; pp. 9-16. The reasons underlying the decision to grow via pp. 14-27. Both theoretical and applied research have their place in ex- franchises rather than company-owned outlets remain under debate. plaining hospitality-related phenomena and addressing the industry's problems. While the two types of research complement each other, How the Achievement of Human-resources Goals Drives as a general rule applied research is more likely to address an indi- Restaurant Performance, by Danie/ J. Koys; pp. 17-24. In an effort vidual issue, seek and find a solution, and apply that solution. to connect employee attitudes and behavior to a restaurant's business success, this study examined causal relationships between data The Value of Academic Research, by Gabriele Piccoli and Erica L. (drawn from 28 restaurants) measured a year apart. Wagner; pp. 29-38. Cursory inspection might lead a practitioner to worry about academics in ivy-covered towers, but research that Employee Selection: How Simulations Change the Picture for examines hospitality-information systems has covered such issues Minority Groups, by Nea/ Schmitt; pp. 25-32. A comparison of writ- as business-process reengineering, decision-support systems, ten tests and job simulations showed significant differences in the entity-relationship modeling, group support systems, recognition of success rate on those tests of different groups of prospective employees. IS and IT as a strategic resource, and telecommuting, among others. Organizational Citizenship: A Comparison between Part-time and Applied Research in Managerial Communication: The Critical Link Full-time Service Employees, by Christina L. Stamper and Linn Van between Knowledge and Practice, by Judi Brownell; pp. 39-49. Dyne; pp. 33-42. A study of 257 employees and their managers in six Managerial communication research generates principles and strate- diverse restaurants found that employees’ work status influences their gies for improving managerial performance, as communication acu- level of organizational citizenship behavior. In particular, the study men is essential to success in a wide range of activities. Both lan- found that part-time employees are less likely than full-time workers guage, what a manager says, and behavior, what a manager does, to exhibit helping behavior. contribute to individual effectiveness. Guest Perceptions of Hotel Quality: Determining Which Employee Best Practices in the Assessment of Hotel-guest Attitudes, Groups Count Most, by Michael D. Hartline, Barbara Ross Wooldridge, by Matthew Schall; pp. 51-65. Hospitality managers need to employ and Keith C. Jones; pp* 43-52. One of the most important cues that sound measurement and survey-research principles for developing guests use to infer the quality of a hotel is the performance of its and using guest-attitude surveys, because the results of those surveys customer-contact employees. While the performance of all customer- are typically used to evaluate property performance, reward manage- contact employees is important to guests’ assessment of a hotel's ment teams, identify specific operational issues that are dissatisfying quality, research has shown that the performance of some employee guests, and evaluate guest loyalty and satisfaction. groups is more critical than others to that assessment—and to guest satisfaction. Qualitative Research: Advancing the Science and Practice of Hospitality, by Kate Walsh; pp. 66-74. Qualitative research plays an Optimizing Restaurant-table Configurations: Specifying Combin- important role in advancing knowledge and practice in the hospitality able Tables, by Gary VM. Thompson; pp. 53-60. A restaurant's floor industry. If conducted appropriately, qualitative research can identify plan should be designed to accommodate the best mix of combinable key information and relationships that are important to understanding tables, and—especially during peak business hours—restaurant man- a hospitality organization's operation. agers should know how best to combine tables to ensure service levels and maximize revenue. The author introduces restaurant- Experiments and Quasi-experiments: Methods for Evaluating configuration measurements that must be taken into account when Marketing Options, by Ann Lynn and Michael Lynn; pp. 75-84. determining which and how many tables should be combinable. Hospitality marketers rarely use experiments or quasi-experiments to evaluate multiple marketing options prior to deciding on some course A Market-utility Approach to Scheduling Employees, by John C. of action. Doing so would be wise, however, because the marketplace Goodale, Rohit Verma, and Madeleine E. Pullman; pp. 61-69. To facili- is too complex for marketers to rely on marketing options developed tate the matching of service capacity, customer preferences, and as the result of exploratory or descriptive research alone. demand, hospitality-service designers should consider the systems view of these factors, and consider the information needs required Computer Simulation in Hospitality Teaching, Practice, and for supporting scheduling decisions. Research, by Gary M. Thompson and Rohit Verma; pp. 85-93. This article addresses the use of computer simulation in hospitality teach- The Bandwagon Effect: Swiss Hotels’ Web-site and E-mail ing, practice, and research. Simulation models allow managers to Management, by Jamie Murphy, Doina Olaru, Roland Schegg, and try out various operating strategies or alternatives, without actually Susanne Frey; pp. 71-87. Hotels’ adoption of web-based marketing implementing them in practice (and thereby using up human re- seems to follow the principles of diffusion of technology. While some sources, money, and time). organizations make their jump based on logic, others appear more to be chasing current fashion. Data Mining for Hotel Firms: Use and Limitations, by Vincent P Magnini, Earl D. Honeycutt, Jr., and Sharon K. Hodge; pp. 94-105. On-line Pricing: An Analysis of Hotel-company Practices, by Peter Hotel corporations invest in data-mining technology to learn as much O'Connor; pp. 88-96. The price at which a product is offered for sale as possible about their customers’ behavior by seeking patterns in a on line has been identified as one of the key motivators for encourag- large volume of data. Data-mining techniques enable hotel corpora- ing customers to make purchases over the internet. That applies to tions to understand changing consumer wants and predict future de- rooms sold by major international hotel companies. To a large extent, mand trends. Using data mining, one can classify customers by seg- the rates offered through various channels (including Expedia, Travel- ment and then reveal clusters within or across segments. One can ocity, Travelweb, and companies’ own web sites and CRSs) were spot unexpected changes in purchases, with an eye to determining roughly equivalent. Price differences between the companies’ web sites why that occurred. Finally, one can forecast future customer actions and third-party channels (notably, Expedia) were most pronounced based on trends in the data. for upscale hotel chains and least of all for economy properties. 12 Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly *V olume 44 (2003) Table of Contents OCTOBER-DECEMBER 2003 VOL. 44, NO. 1 (FEBRUARY 2003) VOL. 44, NO. 2 (APRIL 2003) Why Restaurant Firms Franchise: An Analysis of Two Possible The Value of Theoretical Research and Applied Research for the Explanations, by Vera L. Hoover, David J. Ketchen, Jr., and James G. Hospitality Industry, by James R. Van Scotter and Patrick E. Culligan; Combs; pp. 9-16. The reasons underlying the decision to grow via pp. 14-27. Both theoretical and applied research have their place in ex- franchises rather than company-owned outlets remain under debate. plaining hospitality-related phenomena and addressing the industry's problems. While the two types of research complement each other, How the Achievement of Human-resources Goals Drives as a general rule applied research is more likely to address an indi- Restaurant Performance, by Danie/ J. Koys; pp. 17-24. In an effort vidual issue, seek and find a solution, and apply that solution. to connect employee attitudes and behavior to a restaurant's business success, this study examined causal relationships between data The Value of Academic Research, by Gabriele Piccoli and Erica L. (drawn from 28 restaurants) measured a year apart. Wagner; pp. 29-38. Cursory inspection might lead a practitioner to worry about academics in ivy-covered towers, but research that Employee Selection: How Simulations Change the Picture for examines hospitality-information systems has covered such issues Minority Groups, by Nea/ Schmitt; pp. 25-32. A comparison of writ- as business-process reengineering, decision-support systems, ten tests and job simulations showed significant differences in the entity-relationship modeling, group support systems, recognition of success rate on those tests of different groups of prospective employees. IS and IT as a strategic resource, and telecommuting, among others. Organizational Citizenship: A Comparison between Part-time and Applied Research in Managerial Communication: The Critical Link Full-time Service Employees, by Christina L. Stamper and Linn Van between Knowledge and Practice, by Judi Brownell; pp. 39-49. Dyne; pp. 33-42. A study of 257 employees and their managers in six Managerial communication research generates principles and strate- diverse restaurants found that employees’ work status influences their gies for improving managerial performance, as communication acu- level of organizational citizenship behavior. In particular, the study men is essential to success in a wide range of activities. Both lan- found that part-time employees are less likely than full-time workers guage, what a manager says, and behavior, what a manager does, to exhibit helping behavior. contribute to individual effectiveness. Guest Perceptions of Hotel Quality: Determining Which Employee Best Practices in the Assessment of Hotel-guest Attitudes, Groups Count Most, by Michael D. Hartline, Barbara Ross Wooldridge, by Matthew Schall; pp. 51-65. Hospitality managers need to employ and Keith C. Jones; pp* 43-52. One of the most important cues that sound measurement and survey-research principles for developing guests use to infer the quality of a hotel is the performance of its and using guest-attitude surveys, because the results of those surveys customer-contact employees. While the performance of all customer- are typically used to evaluate property performance, reward manage- contact employees is important to guests’ assessment of a hotel's ment teams, identify specific operational issues that are dissatisfying quality, research has shown that the performance of some employee guests, and evaluate guest loyalty and satisfaction. groups is more critical than others to that assessment—and to guest satisfaction. Qualitative Research: Advancing the Science and Practice of Hospitality, by Kate Walsh; pp. 66-74. Qualitative research plays an Optimizing Restaurant-table Configurations: Specifying Combin- important role in advancing knowledge and practice in the hospitality able Tables, by Gary VM. Thompson; pp. 53-60. A restaurant's floor industry. If conducted appropriately, qualitative research can identify plan should be designed to accommodate the best mix of combinable key information and relationships that are important to understanding tables, and—especially during peak business hours—restaurant man- a hospitality organization's operation. agers should know how best to combine tables to ensure service levels and maximize revenue. The author introduces restaurant- Experiments and Quasi-experiments: Methods for Evaluating configuration measurements that must be taken into account when Marketing Options, by Ann Lynn and Michael Lynn; pp. 75-84. determining which and how many tables should be combinable. Hospitality marketers rarely use experiments or quasi-experiments to evaluate multiple marketing options prior to deciding on some course A Market-utility Approach to Scheduling Employees, by John C. of action. Doing so would be wise, however, because the marketplace Goodale, Rohit Verma, and Madeleine E. Pullman; pp. 61-69. To facili- is too complex for marketers to rely on marketing options developed tate the matching of service capacity, customer preferences, and as the result of exploratory or descriptive research alone. demand, hospitality-service designers should consider the systems view of these factors, and consider the information needs required Computer Simulation in Hospitality Teaching, Practice, and for supporting scheduling decisions. Research, by Gary M. Thompson and Rohit Verma; pp. 85-93. This article addresses the use of computer simulation in hospitality teach- The Bandwagon Effect: Swiss Hotels’ Web-site and E-mail ing, practice, and research. Simulation models allow managers to Management, by Jamie Murphy, Doina Olaru, Roland Schegg, and try out various operating strategies or alternatives, without actually Susanne Frey; pp. 71-87. Hotels’ adoption of web-based marketing implementing them in practice (and thereby using up human re- seems to follow the principles of diffusion of technology. While some sources, money, and time). organizations make their jump based on logic, others appear more to be chasing current fashion. Data Mining for Hotel Firms: Use and Limitations, by Vincent P Magnini, Earl D. Honeycutt, Jr., and Sharon K. Hodge; pp. 94-105. On-line Pricing: An Analysis of Hotel-company Practices, by Peter Hotel corporations invest in data-mining technology to learn as much O'Connor; pp. 88-96. The price at which a product is offered for sale as possible about their customers’ behavior by seeking patterns in a on line has been identified as one of the key motivators for encourag- large volume of data. Data-mining techniques enable hotel corpora- ing customers to make purchases over the internet. That applies to tions to understand changing consumer wants and predict future de- rooms sold by major international hotel companies. To a large extent, mand trends. Using data mining, one can classify customers by seg- the rates offered through various channels (including Expedia, Travel- ment and then reveal clusters within or across segments. One can ocity, Travelweb, and companies’ own web sites and CRSs) were spot unexpected changes in purchases, with an eye to determining roughly equivalent. Price differences between the companies’ web sites why that occurred. Finally, one can forecast future customer actions and third-party channels (notably, Expedia) were most pronounced based on trends in the data. for upscale hotel chains and least of all for economy properties. 12 Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly *V olume 44 (2003) Table of Contents OCTOBER-DECEMBER 2003 UME4 4 (2003) TABLE OF CONTENTS © Utility Analysis: A Tool for Quantifying the Value of Hospitality Weathering the Legal Climate Today and Tomorrow, by William A Human Resource Interventions, by Michael C. Sturman; pp. 106- Brewer III; pp. 56-57. This brief article highlights and reviews some 116. Utility analysis is a technique designed to help decision makers of the topics covered at a recent hospitality-law conference, including determine the value of human resource interventions (e.g., staffing top legal issues and their effect on the bottom line; the concurrent and programs, training programs, compensation programs). The basic util- conflicting interests of owners, developers, and managers; ownership ity model states that the utility of an intervention equals the benefits of guests’ information; communications; and the legal liability of per- from that intervention, less its attendant costs. sonnel issues. Clarifying “Fuzzy” Hospitality-management Problems with Depth The Agency Challenge: How Woolley, Woodley, and Other Cases Interviews and Qualitative Analysis, by Robert J. Kwortnik, Jr; Rearranged the Hotel-management Landscape, by James S. pp. 117-129. Depth interviews are one of the most powerful methods Renard and Kristi Motley; pp. 58-76. A series of court cases in the for digging into the factors that motivate consumers’ behavior. While last 12 years or so, discussed herein, have redefined the relationship the conclusions of a series of depth interviews cannot be generalized between hotel owners and their management companies and their (as is usually the case with qualitative research), the detailed analysis franchisors. possible from a few intensive interviews can shed light on a specific aspect of consumers’ behavior. Franchisees and Shareholders: The Next Wave of Hotel Litigation, by William A. Brewer III; pp. 77-88. Hotel chains are facing litigation Hospitality-productivity Assessment Using Data-envelopment from owners who are challenging the chains’ longstanding manage- Analysis, by Dennis Reynolds; pp. 130-137. Hospitality managers ment practices. Those cases are based on the concept established in have been interested in maximizing productivity for decades. Most ex- the 1990s that a hotel-management company is, in fact, an agent for isting methods for productivity measurement and analysis are inexact the hotel's owner because it provides personal services. As such, or lack utility. Data-envelopment analysis (DEA) provides a methodology the management company must operate in the owner's best interest, by which diverse operations’ efficiency can be evaluated effectively. divulge all relevant operating information, and eschew double dealing or competing with the owner. Strategic Analysis for the Hospitality Industry, by Jeffrey S. Harrison; pp. 139-152. Strategic planning, which is essential for long- VOL. 44, NO. 4 (AUGUST 2003) term success, Starts with strategic analysis, which involves research- ing factors affecting one's business in the external environment, the task environment, and within the company. Factors in the external envi- ADR Rule of Thumb: Validity and Suggestions for Its Application, ronment include societal trends and influences, economic information, by John W. O'Neill; pp. 7-16. This article presents empirical research technological changes in the way services are produced and delivered, po- that examines the actual relationship between ADR and hotel-property litical and legal trends, and major innovations and trends in other industries. value in recent years. Hotels’ average-daily-rate (ADR) rule of thumb, which historically stated that a hotel should generate $1 in ADR per $1,000 in value per room (and now also states that a hotel should gen- VOL. 44, NO. 3 (JUNE 2003) erate $1,000 in value per room per $1 in ADR), has been used in the lodging industry for decades. New York’s Smoke-free Regulations: Effects on Employment and Sales in the Hospitality Industry, by Andrew Hyland, Vanaja Pull, Understanding First-day Returns of Hospitality Initial Public Offer- Michael Cummings, and Russ Sciandra; pp. 9-16. Contrary to claims ings, by Linda Canina and Scott Gibson; pp. 17-28. An examination of that smoke-free regulations cause decreases in hospitality-industry initial public offerings by 137 hospitality firms found that those transac- sales, this study determined that neither sales nor employment are tions fit the general pattern found for IPOs in other industries. hurt when smoke-free regulations are put in place. The Effects of Gasoline-price Changes on Room Demand: A Study Grooming Future Hospitality Leaders: A Competencies Model, of Branded Hotels from 1988 through 2000, by Linda Canina, Kate by Beth G. Chung-Herrera, Cathy A. Enz, and Melenie J. Lankau; Walsh, and Cathy A. Enz; pp. 29-37. Based on an analysis of 13 years pp. 17-25. Competency models can be useful tools for identifying and of lodging-industry data, this study quantifies the negative effects of grooming future leaders. Rather than base leadership assessment on gasoline-price increases on hotel-room demand in the United States. personality traits or other unrelated characteristics, competency mod- els specify the actions and behavior needed for successful leaders. The Evolution of Electronic Distribution: Effects on Hotels and In- termediaries, by Bil! Carroll and Judy Siguaw; pp. 38-50. With the mi- The Customer’s Role in the Service Encounter: The Effects of gration of hotel-room distribution to the internet, a host of players old Control and Fairness, by Karthik Namasivayam and Timothy R. and new are vying to gain (or retain) control of distribution channels. Hinkin; pp. 26-36. Two key elements of service satisfaction for In addition to the hotels and chains themselves, the operations that customers are the perception that they have at least some control distribute hotel rooms include global distribution systems (GDSs), dis- or choice and that the service provider is being fair. tribution service providers (DSPs), third-party websites (e.g., Expedia, priceline.com), and traditional travel agencies. Beyond the Pillow Mint: How Hotels Can Help with Jet Lag, by James B. Maas, Ph.D., and Oriel FeldmanHall; pp. 37-43. Jet lag Restaurant-selection Preferences of Mature Consumers, by is a bane of international travel, robbing travelers of the full enjoyment George Moschis, Carolyn Folkman Curasi, and Danny Bellenger; of their destination for the first day or two after arrival. However, by pp. 51-60. The growing market of consumers over the age of 55 understanding the jet-lag mechanism, hoteliers can help their guests continues to attract attention from restaurateurs. Responding to aging overcome jet lag’s worst effects. consumers’ preferences requires an understanding of that population's growing diversity. A segmentation analysis found four archetypal Competitive Edge: A Strategic Management Model, by 7. Russel! groups among mature consumers, differentiated not by age so much Crook, David J. Ketchen, Jr., and Charles C. Snow; pp. 44-55. To as- as by life circumstances (e.g., retirement, death of a spouse) and out- sess a firm’s strategic position, managers must analyze data regarding look (e.g., concern for one’s health, independence) the firm, its competitors and stakeholders, and the industry. OCTOBER-DECEMBER 2003 Volume 44 (2003) Table of Contents * Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly 13 CONTINUED VOL. 44, NO. 4 (AUGUST 2003) Customer Relationship Management—A Driver for Change in the Brand Europe: European Integration and Tourism Develop- Structure of the U.S. Lodging Industry, by Gabriele Piccoli, Peter ment, by Peter Akerhielm, Chekitan S. Dev, and Malcolm A. O'Connor, Claudio Capaccioli, and Roy Alvarez; pp. 61-73. Customer Noden; pp. 88-93. Ten years after commencing operations relationship management (CRM) is a managerial philosophy that the European Union does not have a unified travel policy. enables a firm to become intimately familiar with its customers. *Marketing Hotels Using Global Distribution Systems, The Role of Call Centers in Mollifying Disgruntled Guests, by Anna by Rita Marie Emmer, Chuck Tauck, Scott Wilkinson, and S. Mattila and Daniel J. Mount; pp. 75-80. As an increasing number Richard G. Moore; pp. 94-104. Ten years ago, when this article was of service companies establish call centers to handle customers’ first published, making hotel reservations electronically via global complaints, the question arises of how best to handle those com- distribution systems (GDS) was a relatively new phenomenon. plaints. Although it's appropriate to say that customers want fair treatment, it turns out that several factors are at work in the Ccus- “Marketing Hotels Using Global Distribution Systems” tomers’ determination of what is fair and just. Revisited, by Peter O'Connor and Gabriele Piccoli; pp. 105-114. Web-based mega-agencies have themselves become a force in VOL. 44, NOs. 5 & 6 (OCTOBER-—DECEMBER 2003) hotel distribution, rather than just conduits for hotel chains. Revisiting the Best of the Best: Innovations in Hotel Practice, Speciat Comsinep Issue by Cathy A. Enz and Judy A. Siguaw; pp. 115-123. This is an up- *The Service Imperative: Factors Driving Meeting date to a study of best practices conducted five years ago Effectiveness, by Timothy R. Hinkin and J. Bruce Tracey; pp. 17-26. This 1997 study of the factors that affected meeting From Customer Value to Engineering Pleasurable Experiences planners’ and participants’ ratings of a meeting’s success returned in Real Life and Online, by Laurette Dubé, Jordan Le Bel, and a list of 50 factors in nine categories. Donna Sears; pp. 124-125. Although the lodging industry has jumped wholeheartedly onto the web bandwagon, most are using Continued Relevance of “Factors Driving Meeting Effective- their web sites for one-dimensional (visual) promotion and sales. ness,” by Timothy R. Hinkin and J. Bruce Tracey; pp. 27-30. The best way to determine which attributes should be included in a Revenue Management: A Retrospective, by Shery/ E. Kimes; conference space is to separate the must-have items from those pp. 131-138. From its beginning as a method for improving rev- that guests merely consider nice to have. enues for airlines, revenue management has been extended to hotels and restaurants, with further application to golf courses *Hotel Management Loyalty: A Strategic Commitment, and function space. by John T. Bowen and Stowe Shoemaker; pp. 31-46. This mid- 1990s study of 892 luxury-hotel guests provides support for the Tip Levels and Service: An Update, Extension, and Reconcilia- proposition that relationship marketing can benefit that segment. tion, by Michael Lynn; pp. 139-148. Tips by server and by restau- rant are only weakly related to average service quality; restaurant Commentary on “Loyalty: A Strategic Commitment,” by Stowe turnover rates and servers’ thoughts about quitting are negatively Shoemaker and John Bowen; pp. 47-52. In 2003, building cus- correlated with restaurants’ and servers’ average-tip percentages; tomer loyalty continues to grow in importance for hotel marketers. and servers can increase their tips by taking one or more of 14 specific actions. “Evaluating a Hotel GM's Performance: A Case Study in Bench- marking, by Richard C. Morey and David A. Dittman; pp. 53-59. Labor Scheduling: A Commentary, by Gary M. Thompson; Because every market is different, evaluating a general manager's pp. 149-155. This article describes how a computer application performance is one of the most perplexing issues management that handles the mathematical functions of labor scheduling, based faces on the manager's input, can match the number of workers available to the customer demand that exists in any given time period. Update and Extension to “Evaluating a Hotel GM's Perfor- mance,” by Richard C. Morey and David A. Dittman; pp. 60-68. The Art and Science of Customer Choice Modeling: Reflections, This analysis creates an efficiency index, in which the most effi- Advances, and Managerial Implications, by Rohit Verma and cient managers’ performances become benchmarks for managers Gerhard Plaschka; pp. pp. 156-165. Technological and methodologi- of comparable, but less-efficient operations. cal advances have improved the accuracy of customer-choice stud- ies, thus allowing managers to create product-and-service offerings *Buying High and Selling Low in the Lodging-Property Market, that are precisely targeted to meet customer demands. by John B. Corgel and Jan A. deRoos; pp. 69-75. Originally pub- lished in 1994, this is an analysis of more than 1,300 hotel transac- No One Ever Made Money by Discouraging Their Customers tions recorded between 1985 and 1992. from Spending It!, by Bil/ Quain; pp. 166-172. The hospitality in- dustry must resist a “discounting mentality.” While selective dis- Buying High and Selling Low Revisited: The “Quiet Industry,” counts may bring in business, discounts usually just give custom- by John B. Corgel and Jan A. deRoos; pp. 76-80. New sources of ers a lower price for services they were going to purchase anyway. information have arisen in the past ten years and would-be hotel buyers and sellers have gained sophistication in their transaction Customer Satisfaction: Applying Concepts to Industry-wide motivations Measures, by Jonathan Barsky and Leonard Nash; pp. 173-183. Analysis of a customer-satisfaction database shows the connection “Europe 1992: Neglecting the Tourism Opportunity, by Peter between customers’ emotions and their loyalty. Customer satisfac- Akerhielm, Chekitan S. Dev, and Malcolm A. Noden; pp. 81-87. tion has been climbing recently, following a nadir in early 2002. This pre-European Community report shows that tourism is af- fected by nearly 76 of the 278 proposals to be enacted in creating * Each of these articles was published years ago in Cornell Quarterly. a unified market in Europe by the end of 1992 In each case the subsequent article updates the findings of the reprinted article. 14 Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly « Volume 44 (2003) Table of Contents OCTOBER-DECEMBER 2003