CONTROLLED RELEASE FERTILIZERS FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE Edited by F.B. LEWU Department of Agriculture, Cape Peninsula University of TechnologyWellingtonCampus,Wellington,SouthAfrica TATIANA VOLOVA Department of Biotechnology, Siberian Federal University, Krasnoyarsk, Russia SABU THOMAS School of Energy Materials; Schoolof Chemical Sciences, InternationalandInter-UniversityCentreforNanoscience and Nanotechnology, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India RAKHIMOL K.R. InternationalandInter-UniversityCentreforNanoscience and Nanotechnology, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India AcademicPressisanimprintofElsevier 125LondonWall,LondonEC2Y5AS,UnitedKingdom 525BStreet,Suite1650,SanDiego,CA92101,UnitedStates 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UnitedKingdom Copyright©2021ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. 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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary ISBN:978-0-12-819555-0 ForinformationonallAcademicPresspublicationsvisitour websiteathttps://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals Publisher:CharlotteCockle AcquisitionsEditor:NancyMaragioglio EditorialProjectManager:LenaSparks ProductionProjectManager:JoyChristelNeumarinHonestThangiah CoverDesigner:MatthewLimbert TypesetbyTNQTechnologies Contributors AshithaA. SchoolofBiosciences,MahatmaGandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India SoumiaAboulhrouz VARENACenter,MAScIRFoundation,RabatDesign,Rabat,Morocco AimanE.Al-Rawajfeh DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,TafilaTechnicalUniversity,Tafila,Jordan MohammadR.Alrbaihat MinistryofEducation,Ajman,UnitedArabEmirates EhabM.AlShamaileh DepartmentofChemistry,TheUniversityofJordan,Amman,Ajman,Jordan OthmaneAmadine VARENACenter,MAScIRFoundation,RabatDesign,Rabat,Morocco SubinBalachandran SchoolofBiosciences,MahatmaGandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India VinayaChandran SchoolofBiosciences,MahatmaGandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India KarimDanoun VARENACenter,MAScIRFoundation,RabatDesign,Rabat,Morocco YounessEssamlali VARENACenter,MAScIRFoundation,RabatDesign,Rabat,Morocco IkramGanetri VARENACenter,MAScIRFoundation,RabatDesign,Rabat,Morocco JesiyaSusanGeorge InternationalandInterUniversityCentreforNanoscienceandNanotechnology,Mahatma GandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India AbdulGhaffar DepartmentofPhysics,UniversityofAgriculture,Faisalabad,Punjab,Pakistan RakhimolK.R. InternationalandInterUniversityCentreforNanoscienceandNanotechnology,Mahatma GandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India JayachandranK. SchoolofBiosciences,MahatmaGandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India NandakumarKalarikkal InternationalandInterUniversityCentreforNanoscienceandNanotechnology,Mahatma GandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India ix x Contributors JyothisMathew SchoolofBiosciences,MahatmaGandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India LinuMathew SchoolofBiosciences,MahatmaGandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India StalinNadarajan InstituteofPlantScience,AROVolcaniCenter,RishonLezion,Israel MuhammadYasinNaz DepartmentofPhysics,UniversityofAgriculture,Faisalabad,Punjab,Pakistan ChandraWahyuPurnomo ChemicalEngineeringDepartment,UniversitasGadjahMada,Sleman,Yogyakarta, Indonesia MayaRajan SchoolofBiosciences,MahatmaGandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India HensSaputra AgencyfortheAssessmentandApplicationofTechnology,Jakarta,Indonesia S.Shahena SchoolofBiosciences,MahatmaGandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India HithaShaji SchoolofBiosciences,MahatmaGandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India ShaziaShukrullah DepartmentofPhysics,UniversityofAgriculture,Faisalabad,Punjab,Pakistan ReshmaSoman SchoolofBiosciences,MahatmaGandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India SuryaSukumaran SchoolofPureandAppliedPhysics,MahatmaGandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India SabuThomas InternationalandInterUniversityCentreforNanoscienceandNanotechnology,Mahatma GandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India RemyaV.R. InternationalandInterUniversityCentreforNanoscienceandNanotechnology,Mahatma GandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India MohamedZahouily VARENACenter,MAScIRFoundation,RabatDesign,Rabat,Morocco;Laboratoirede Matériaux,CatalyseetValorisationdesRessourcesNaturelles,UniversitéHassanII- Casablanca,Morocco CHAPTER 1 Conventional methods of fertilizer release S. Shahena, Maya Rajan, Vinaya Chandran, Linu Mathew SchoolofBiosciences,MahatmaGandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India 1. Introduction Thefertilizerisanykindofmaterialthatisappliedtosoilortoplanttissues to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants. It may be natural or synthetically produced [1]. Managementofsoilfertilityhasbeenagreatproblemforthefarmersfor thousands of years. Records showed that Egyptians, Romans, Babylonians, and early Germans were using minerals and manure to enhance the productivityoftheirfarms.Themodernscienceofplantnutritionstartedin the 19th century with the work of German chemist Justus von Liebig [1]. The Haber process and the Ostwald process developed in the 1910 and 1920s made a great revolution in the fertilizer manufacturing Industry. Ammonia (NH ) is produced from methane (CH ) gas and molecular 3 4 nitrogen (N ) through the Haber process, which is then converted into 2 nitric acid (HNO ) in the Ostwald process [2]. 3 The nitrogen-based fertilizer production was started with Birkelande Eyde process, which was one of the most competing industrial processes in the nitrogen-based fertilizer production. In this process, the atmospheric nitrogen (N ) is fixed into nitric acid (HNO ) through nitrogen fixation. 2 3 (cid:1) The nitric acid was then used as a source of nitrate (NO ) [3]. 3 Nowadays, it has been estimated that almost half the people on the Earth are currently fed as a result of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer. The development of synthetic fertilizer has significantly supported global populationgrowth[4].Inthelast50years,theuseofcommercialfertilizers has been increasing steadily; reaching almost 100 million tons of nitrogen peryear,anditisestimatedthataboutone-thirdofthefoodproducednow could not be produced without the addition of fertilizers [5]. The use of phosphate fertilizers has also increased from nine million tons per year in 1960 to 40 million tons per year in 2000. Yara International is the world’s largest producer of nitrogen-based fertilizers [6,7]. ControlledReleaseFertilizersforSustainableAgriculture ISBN978-0-12-819555-0 ©2021ElsevierInc. 1 https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819555-0.00001-7 Allrightsreserved. 2 ControlledReleaseFertilizersforSustainableAgriculture Thesupplyofnutrientsmustbeoptimumforthemaximumyieldofany crop. The nutrient deficiency will result in stunting of plants and that will gradually reduce the yield by slowing down the progress of the growth cycle, causing late fruiting and delayed maturity. The ability of the crop to absorb the nutrients from the soil depends upon the biological activity. Normallythenutrientdeficiencytakesplaceduringthegrowingseasonand dependsonthetemperature andmoisturecontent ofthesoil[8].Fertilizers enhance plant growth traditionally; either as, being additives that provide nutrients or by enhancing the effectiveness of the soil by modifying its water retention and aeration [9]. Also, an important component of the weedmanagementprogramistheefficientandappropriatemanagementof fertilizerintermsofevaluationofbestsourceofnutrients,optimumratesof fertilization, proper timing, and suitable fertilizer placement [3,10]. The essential prerequisite for optimizing nutrient application is the detailed knowledge about the addition of nutrients, i e., the absorption of nutrients by the plants. The applied nutrients should satisfy the plant requirementsandthemethodusedfortheapplicationshouldminimizethe leachingtotheenvironmentandtherebycontroltherateofenvironmental pollution [11]. The type of fertilizer, timing of fertilizer application, and seasonal trends are the major factors that affect the efficiency of the applied N(nitrogen)tosatisfytheNdemandofthecrops[12,13].Theefficiencyof thecropstoabsorbtheNisinfluencedbythesoiltype,cropsequence,and the residual and mineralized N [14]. The reduction of nitrogen loss and increase in the N use efficiency can be improved by numerous strategies. For example, the use of N sources, consumption of slow-release fertilizer, proper placement techniques, and also by the use of N inhibitors [15e17]. The plant metabolism is coupled with the availability of the N sources because it has a fundamental role in the plant metabolism. It is necessary to optimize the management of N resources to the cropping system to increase itsNuseefficiencyandtherebyimprovetheproductivity[18].Normally,this can be achieved either by increasing the production of N in the soil or by increasingtheaccumulationofNcompoundsintheediblepartofthecrop[15]. The nutrients requiredfor healthy plant life are classifiedon thebasis of the elements; but these elements are not used directly as fertilizers. The compounds containing these elements are the basis of fertilizers. The macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities by the plants. They are present in plant tissue in quantities from 0.15% to 6.0% on a dry matter (DM)(0%moisture)basis.Plantsaremadeupoffourmainelementssuchas hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen. Hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon Conventionalmethodsoffertilizerrelease 3 will be available in the form of water and carbon dioxide. The nitrogen is found in the atmosphere as atmospheric nitrogen which is unavailable to plants. So the nitrogen is considered as the most important fertilizer since nitrogen is present in proteins, DNA, and other components such as chlorophyll. Some bacteria and their host leguminous plants can fix atmospheric nitrogen (N ) by converting it to ammonia. Phosphate is 2 required for the production of DNA and ATP, the main energy carrier in cells, as well as certain lipids. The fertilizer contains: (cid:129) Three main macronutrients: ◦ Nitrogen (N): leaf growth ◦ Phosphorus (P): Development of roots, flowers, seeds, fruit ◦ Potassium (K): Strong stem growth, movement of water in plants, promotion of flowering and fruiting (cid:129) Three secondary macronutrients: calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S) (cid:129) Micronutrients: copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), zinc (Zn), boron (B). Of occasional significance are silicon (Si), cobalt (Co), and vanadium (V). Micronutrients are required in smaller quantities, in parts-per-million (ppm) and are present at the active sites of enzymes in the plant tissues that carry out the plant’s metabolism [19]. 2. Classification Fertilizers are classified in several ways. 2.1 Based on the nutrient supply On the basis of the nutrient supply, the fertilizers can be classified into straight fertilizers and complex fertilizers. 2.1.1 Single nutrient or straight fertilizers Asthenameindicates,thesinglenutrientorstraightnutrientfertilizersprovide asinglenutrienttotheplants(e.g.,K,P,orN).Ammoniaoritssolutionsarethe widelyusednitrogen-basedstraightfertilizers.Ammoniumnitrate(NH NO ) 4 3 andureaarepopularsourcesofnitrogen.Ureaishavingtheadvantagethatitis solidandnonexplosive,unlikeammoniaandammoniumnitrate. The superphosphates are the main straight phosphate fertilizers. Single superphosphate (SSP) consists of 14%e18% P O , again in the forms of 2 5 4 ControlledReleaseFertilizersforSustainableAgriculture Ca(H PO ) and also phosphogypsum (CaSO4$2H O). The main con- 2 4 2 2 stituentsoftriplesuperphosphate(TSP)are44%e48%ofP O andnogypsum. 2 5 Amixtureofsinglesuperphosphateandtriplesuperphosphateiscalleddouble superphosphate.Mostofthe(morethan90%)typicalsuperphosphatefertilizer iswater-soluble[20]. MuriateofPotash(MOP)isthemainpotassium-basedstraightfertilizer. Muriate of Potash consists of 95%e99% KCl, and is typically available as 0-0-60 or 0-0-62 fertilizer [21]. 2.1.2 Multinutrient or complex fertilizers The multinutrient or complex fertilizers provide two or more nutrients (e.g., N and P). The commonly used fertilizers are the complex fertilizers. Since they consist of two or more nutrient components, they are again classified into binary fertilizers and three-component fertilizers or NPK fertilizers [20]. 2.1.2.1 Binary (NP, NK, and PK) fertilizers Since they provide both nitrogen and phosphorus to the plants they are called NP fertilizers, e.g., monoammonium phosphate (MAP) and dia- mmoniumphosphate(DAP).TheactiveingredientinMAPisNH H PO 4 2 4 andtheactiveingredientinDAPis(NH ) HPO .About85%ofMAPand 4 2 4 DAP fertilizers are soluble in water. 2.1.2.2 NPK fertilizers Nitrogen,phosphorus,andpotassiumcontainingfertilizersarecalledthree- component fertilizers or NPK fertilizers. 2.2 Based on the presence or absence of carbon 2.2.1 Organic fertilizer Organic fertilizers are recycled plant- or animal-derived matter. 2.2.2 Inorganic fertilizer Inorganic fertilizers or synthetic fertilizers are synthesized by various chemical treatments [20]. 3. Mode of application Theapplicationratesoffertilizerdependonthesoilfertility.Thefertilityof a soil is usually as measured by a soil test according to the particular crop. The method of applying fertilizers depends on the nature of crop plants, their nutrient needs, and the soil (Table 1.1). Table1.1 Acomparisonofdifferent methodsoffertilizerapplication. Typeof Mode of fertilizer application Advantages Disadvantages Solid A. Broad casting 1. Uniform distribution. 1. The plants in the field cannot fully fertilizers a. Basal 2. Completely mix with soil. utilize the fertilizers. application 3. Supplying nitrogen in readily available 2. Due to the presence of fertilizer all b. Top dressing form to growing plants. over the field, the weeds also absorb the nutrients and the weed growth is also stimulated by the fertilizer. 3. Large amount of the fertilizer is needed and nutrients are fixed in the soil. B. Placement 1. Suitable for dry land areas and paddy 1. Due to the higher concentration of the a. Plough sole fields. soluble salts, the germinated seeds and placement 2. Used for the placement of ammoniacal young plants may get damaged. C o b. Deep nitrogenous fertilizers particularly in the nv e placement root zone soil. ntio c. Localized 3. Prevents the loss of nutrients by runoff. na l placement 4. Only adequate amount of fertilizer is m e (cid:129) Drilling applied to the soil close to the seed or to th o (cid:129) Side the roots of growing plants. ds dressing 5. Suitable for the application of phosphatic of fe and potassic fertilizers in the case of rtiliz cereal crops. e r 6. There is minimum contact between the re le soil and the fertilizer. ase Continued 5 6 Table1.1 Acomparisonofdifferent methodsoffertilizerapplication.dcont’d Typeof Mode of Co n fertilizer application Advantages Disadvantages tro 7. The nutrients are available only for the lled R crop plants and the weeds all over the ele field cannot make use of the fertilizers. ase 8. Higher residual response of fertilizers. Fe C. Band placement 1. Application of fertilizers in orchards. 1. The seasonal change the mode of rtilize a. Hill 2. Nutrients easily available to the crop application of fertilizer. rsfo r placement plants. S u b. Row 3. Labor saving. sta placement ina b D. Pellet 1. Used for the placement of nitrogenous 1. Significant reduction of fertilizers in the le A application fertilizers in the paddy fields. flood water. g Liquid A. Starter solutions 1. The application of solution to young 1. Additional labor needed. ricu fertilizers vegetable plantlets particularly at the time 2. Higher fixation rate of phosphate. lture of transplantation. 3. The plants get “shocked” due to the 2. Helps in rapid establishment and quick damage to or breaking of roots. growth of the seedlings. B. Foliar 1. The leaves can easily and directly absorb application the nutrients through their stomatal openings and also through the epidermis. 2. An effective method of fertilization. 3. Leaves can easily absorb several nutrient elements. 4. The concentration of the fertilizer solution can be controlled manually.