A University of Sussex DPhil thesis  Available online via Sussex Research Online:  http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/    This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author.    This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first  obtaining permission in writing from the Author    The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any  format or medium without the formal permission of the Author    When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the  author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given  Please visit Sussex Research Online for more information and further details Constructions of Tacana Indigeneity: Regionalism, Race and Indigenous Politics in Amazonian Bolivia Esther Lopez Pila Thesis submitted for the Doctor of Philosophy in Social Anthropology University of Sussex January 2014 2 I hereby declare that this thesis has not been submitted in whole or in part to another University for the award of any other degree. Signature Esther Lopez Pila 3 University of Sussex Esther Lopez Pila Thesis submitted for the Doctor of Philosophy in Social Anthropology Constructions of Tacana Indigeneity: Regionalism, Race and Indigenous Politics in Amazonian Bolivia Summary This dissertation is based on eighteen months of field work in Amazonian Bolivia, and situated in the discourse around the construction of indigenous identity in a neoliberal state. It focusses on a lowland people and their historical and contemporary relationship to the state which is aligned to the contemporary indigenous movement. It does this through an ethnographic and historical study of Tacana people, members of an indigenous group who originate in the tropical piedmont of the Bolivian Andes. A central focus of the work is on the relationships which Tacana people have built with different ethnic, social and political groups in their territory. This focus helps to elucidate the overarching issue at the centre of the thesis: the tensions between the Tacana and other indigenous groups, namely highland Aymara and Quechua who have migrated into the region (colonos). The relationship between Tacana and colonos has become increasingly conflictive since the advent of Bolivia's first indigenous president, Evo Morales, which emphasizes its origins in Bolivia’s strong highland-lowland regionalism. This thesis therefore also examines the strong regionalist sentiments found in Bolivia, as expressed in the contrasting concepts of camba (lowland) and colla (highland) which are themselves further tied to more recent efforts to forge local identities, such as an Amazonian identity. The thesis shows how these efforts, which transgress local, historical and racial boundaries, entail an implicit criticism by lowland populations of the government in the Andes. A related point is that constructions of race and mestizaje have developed differently in the highlands and lowlands. Through a close analysis of such racial relationships the thesis shows how lowland groups such as the Tacana more readily align with lowland mestizo people than with other indigenous groups, especially those who originate in the highlands. Democratization processes and neoliberal policy changes have created spaces for tensions to take shape here and become clearer by discussions around identity, heritage and belonging, brought up by the indigenous movement and heavily informed by NGOs. 4 Table of Contents Acknowledgements ..................................................................................... 7 List of Images, Maps and Photos .................................................................. 9 Acronyms and Abbreviations ..................................................................... 11 Introduction - Indigeneity in Contemporary Bolivia ................................... 15 Central Themes and Contributions ................................................................................... 20 Indigeneity and Indigenous Identity ................................................................................. 21 Who defines ‘Indigenous’? – The Permitted Indian and the Ecological Indian ............ 24 Representation: Bolivian Indigeneity in Andean Concepts .......................................... 27 Authenticity: The Right to Represent ........................................................................... 30 Highland-lowland Regionalism ......................................................................................... 31 Chapter Set-Up ................................................................................................................. 38 Chapter 1 - Locating Tacana People in the Amazon .................................... 41 Methodology .................................................................................................................... 41 The Usage of Terms and Labels ........................................................................................ 44 The Tacana People of this Study – History, Location and Contexts.................................. 45 Amazonian Studies and Contemporary Indigenous Politics ............................................. 51 Tacana People in Amazonian Research ........................................................................ 53 Tacana Cosmology in Geography - Rurrenabaque Holds up the Sky ........................... 55 Migration, Missionization and Ethnogenesis of Tacana Groups ...................................... 60 The Missions of Apolobamba ....................................................................................... 60 Indigenous Politics and its Incompatibility with the Reality of Amazonian Groups ......... 66 Chapter 2 - Where Tacana People Locate Themselves ................................ 69 Settlement and Identity: ‘Being’ Tacana .......................................................................... 70 The Town of Rurrenabaque .............................................................................................. 74 Tacana Comunidades – Infrastructure and Organisation and Activities ......................... 78 The Comunidad Carmen Florida ................................................................................... 83 5 The Comunidad Tumupasa ........................................................................................... 86 The Comunidad Buena Vista ......................................................................................... 88 Geography and Collective Identity in Linguistic Terms ..................................................... 89 The People of the Comunidades ................................................................................... 89 Being Humble ................................................................................................................ 91 Chapter 3 - The Crude Camba of the Amazon and the Genteel Camba of Santa Cruz– Setting the Grounds for Regionalisms ..................................... 94 ‘El Oriente’ - Santa Cruz as the Representative of the Bolivian lowlands ........................ 95 The Establishment of Provinces and Departments in Bolivia ........................................... 97 Non-Indigenous Settlers of the Amazon and Santa Cruz – The Crude Camba vs. the Genteel Camba ............................................................................................................... 102 A Bolivian Middle Class Emerges – The Chaco War (1932-1935) ................................... 105 The ‘Forgotten’ Amazon in Bolivia Today ....................................................................... 109 Chapter 4 - Indian Mothers and White Fathers - Camba as Kinship in the Amazon ................................................................................................... 112 Upgrading the Image of the Amazon ............................................................................. 114 Tacana People and the ‘Amazonian Project’ .................................................................. 116 Camba as Kinship –Tacana People and their Mestizo Patrónes .................................... 118 ‘Camba’ as a Political Tool.............................................................................................. 120 La Manera Camba (The Camba Way) ............................................................................ 122 Of Camba and Colla in Rurrenabaque and Tumupasa ................................................... 126 Tacana People’s Mistrust of the State ............................................................................ 129 Tacana People’s Mistrust of TCOs .............................................................................. 130 Chapter 5 - “The Colonos come like Termites to take our Land.”- Struggles over Land and ‘Ways of Being’ in an Amazon Municipality ...................... 134 Rural Municipalities and the Popular Participation Law (LPP) ....................................... 136 “Evo is not sending down the IDH funds” – The Municipal Summits as a Political Tool 139 Of ‘Humble’ Tacana People and ‘Cunning’ Colonos ....................................................... 141 “The Colonos have Become more Aggressive” - The Struggle over Land ....................... 144 6 Chapter 6 - “Some Families have a Bit more.” – Race, Mestizaje and Social Classes ..................................................................................................... 150 The Andean Indian as the Status Quo ............................................................................ 153 Constructing Mestizaje – Highland and Lowland ........................................................... 156 Economic Situation in the Creation of Race ................................................................... 157 Tumupasa and the Nation State’s Construction of Racial Affiliation ............................. 159 The Mestizo Leaders and the Cabildos Indigenas in Tumupasa ..................................... 161 Indigenous Leaders and Projects in Tumupasa - Paving the Way for the Indigenous Movement ...................................................................................................................... 165 Chapter 7 - Whose Indigeneity, Whose Idea? – Of Land, Lumber, NGOs and Reluctantly Embracing Ethnicity .............................................................. 168 Ideology as Strategy - What Lumber has to do with the Indigenous Political Organizing ........................................................................................................................................ 170 ‘Ethnicity’ as a new Political Platform ............................................................................ 176 From the Church and Tacana leaders, to CIPTA and NGOs - A Shift in Stake Holders ... 178 The Neo-Liberal State Shapes Indigeneity ...................................................................... 179 Making Indigenous Leaders ............................................................................................ 184 Chapter 8 - “They don’t want to give us Unmarried Women Land to Work.” –Tacana Women’s Situation within the Politics of Indigeneity ................. 188 Women’s Movements ..................................................................................................... 190 Gender-Roles in the Tacana Mission and Patrón Comunidad ........................................ 193 International Development and Gender-Equity Programs ............................................. 194 The National Tacana Women’s Organisation, CIMTA .................................................... 196 Land Distribution and Leaving Indigenous Politics – Some Observations ...................... 198 Gossip: Evading Social Pressures .................................................................................... 201 Conclusion ............................................................................................... 204 Bibliography ............................................................................................ 214 7 Acknowledgements Many helped me in the course of my dissertation and field-work. My biggest debt, however, is to the Tacana people in the region around Rurrenabaque in Bolivia, especially those individuals who welcomed me into their lives and willingly shared their every-day situations with me. In Rurrenabaque I would like to thank the Consejo Regional Tsimané Mosetén (CRTM) and especially the president, Clemente Caimani, for numerous conversations and his willingness to aid in the research I was undertaking. In Rurrenabaque I am also indebted to the social scientists Sheila and Daniel Robinson as well as Carlos Espinoza, Marcela, Sandra, Jeni and Carmen for sharing their experience and knowledge of the region; Daniel and his father Enrique Manzaneda for their friendship and hospitality, Kathrina and Gili for their friendship and entertaining reflections on jungle life in the Bolivian lowlands as foreigners from the UK and Israel. In Trinidad I am indebted to Zulema Lehm who worked many years with Tacana people and was very generous with her time and information. I owe much gratitude to the entire Tacana comunidad of Carmen Florida and their friendly readiness to have me participate in their comunidad meetings and festivities. From this comunidad I especially am grateful to the family Beyuma of which I developed a close relationship, especially Anita, whom I thank for the many conversations and being gentle when poking fun at my ignorance of her culture. I also thank Fidencia and Alejandro and their two youngest children Yin and Ada who untiringly led me around their comunidad instructing me in plant life and fruit diversity. I am grateful to Luz for the many evenings on her porch in which she recounted so many interesting details of her family’s life. From the comunidad of San José de Uchupiamonas, Rosario and from the comunidad of Buena Vista, especially, Yolanda, Erika, Lucilla, and her husband, Renee. I also thank the comunidad of Tumupasa and CIPTA which has its base here. In Tumupasa I especially thank Dario, Einer and the German nun, Roswita. In the Andes, in El Alto, I thank Doris and her mother, for their continuous years of friendship and endless readiness to help and share with me Bolivian way of life; in La Paz, Tati, for her hospitality and interesting recounting of the political situation under Evo Morales; Pamela Calla for 8 her hospitality and great insights about the indigenous movement; Regine, for her hospitality and warmth and the lengthy and insightful conversations of living as a German in Bolivia; Moira for her wit and patience whenever I needed to lament anything; the generous Campos sisters Luzmi, Silvia, Piti, Isi for their humor, hospitality and endless te-citos; and especially Coni, for her humorous, detailed recounting of situations which provided me with insights into Bolivian culture which I would never have gained on my own; as also for integrating me into her life so that I myself felt completely at home in Bolivia. Thanks also to her parents in Sucre, Silvia and Guido for their hospitality and advice. In Berlin I am grateful to Lea and my brother Jakob, for their support and receiving my phone calls from Brighton and Bolivia throughout my work; as also to my friends Gisela, Suse, Andrea and especially to Chrissi for making Berlin relaxing, worthwhile and fun when I was there. A great amount of gratitude goes out the Universidad de Cordillera and director Pamela Calla, for without their support and willingness to write me endless letters for various ministries I would not have been able to receive a research permit in Bolivia. Throughout this research I have benefitted from the library at the University of Sussex, the British Library in London, the Ibero-Amerikanisches Insitut in Berlin as also from the Museo Nacional de Etnografia y Folklore (MUSEF) in La Paz and the library in Trinidad (department of Beni). Throughout my research I have benefitted from the intellectual and encouraging environment at the University of Sussex and especially from support of my friends Erika, Samantha, Yulyia and David. My work would not have been the same without the continuous encouragement, untiring and constructive suggestions as well as friendship from my supervisors Andrew Canessa and Evan Killick, as also for the first phase of my dissertation from Ann Whitehead. I thank all three of them for their insights and time-investments and for the genuine interest they showed in my research. Most of all I thank my parents Annemarie and Juan Manuel for their patience, unyielding support and encouraging my enthusiastic interest with Bolivia which led me to launch on this dissertational research. Throughout this research I have benefitted from the library at the University of Sussex, the British Library in London, the Ibero-Amerikanisches Insitut in Berlin as also from the Museo Nacional de Etnografia y Folklore (MUSEF) in La Paz and the library in Trinidad (department of Beni). 9 List of Images, Maps and Photos Image 1: The Balsa-raft competition of Rurrenabaque’s annual town festival…………………..title page Image 2: Map of Bolivia with approximate region of study enlarged and circled ............................ 14 Image 3: Tumupasa Youths at the TIPNIS March arriving in the Andes (October 2011) .................. 16 Image 4 - Location (approximate) of the languages of the Tacana family with neighbouring languages and peoples ...................................................................................................................... 18 Image 5: Map of Bolivia - Though 60% of Bolivia is made up by lowlands, it is considered an Andean country................................................................................................................................. 20 Image 6: Map of Bolivia depicting the departments which make up the Media Luna in grey. ........ 32 Image 7: View onto the town Rurrenabaque from the sacred Macuti Mountain and view across the Beni River to San Buenaventura. ...................................................................................................... 56 Image 8: Petroglyphs of an anaconda and whirlpools or suns in the Beni River by Rurrenabaque (2009) ................................................................................................................................................ 59 Image 9: Excerpt from a map of Bolivia (1931) depicting the area Caupolicán / Apolobamba ....... 63 Image 10: Map of central area of study locating Rurrenabaque, Buena Vista and Carmen Florida (Tumupasa is not included and lies further north of Buen Vista) ..................................................... 73 Image 11: Festival of Rurrenabaque demonstrating the folkloric dance, “el balsero” .................... 75 Image 12: Tacana from nearby comunidades sell plantains to colonos at the beach of Rurrenabaque ................................................................................................................................... 76 Image 13: A school-house (right) and meeting house with solar panel (left), in front the foot-ball field ................................................................................................................................................... 78 Image 14: The Trapiche (sugar mill) is worked by a family in Carmen Florida to produce sugar cane juice to be sold at the market in Rurrenabaque. .............................................................................. 81 Image 15: Harvesting aji and other produce in Carmen Florida for selling at the Sunday market in Rurrenabaque ................................................................................................................................... 81 Image 16: Lunch in Carmen Florida, as cooked on a typical elevated cookng hearth of stones ...... 82 Image 17: Father with his children in front of the sleeping house in Carmen Florida ..................... 84