Migrant Workers in Asia Migrant Workers in Asia provides rich and provocative comparative studies of South - and Southeast Asian workers who migrate to other parts of Asia ranging from Hong Kong, Macau, and Singapore, to Yemen, Israel, Jordan, and the UAE. Concep- tually and mcduodologically this book challenges us to move beyond conventional area studies regional divides, proposing new ways of mapping inter-Asian connec- tions. Radier than focusing on singular or binary sites of home and host destination, sending and receiving nation, one nationality and one location, the authors view mi- grant workers within a wider spatial context of intersecting groups and trajectories through time. Keenly attentive to the importance of migrants of diverse nationalities who have labored in multiple regions, this book examines intimate connections and distant divides in the social lives and politics of migrant workers across time and space. Collectively, the authors propose new themes, new comparative frameworks, and new methodologies for considering vastly different degrees of social support structures and political activism, and the varied meanings of citizenship and state re- sponsibility in sending and receiving countries. They highlight the importance of for- mal institutions (state, local, familial, transnational, and capitalist) that shape and pro- mote migratory labor, advocacy for workers, or curtail workers rights, as well as the social identities and cultural practices and beliefs that may be linked to new inter-etl1- nic social and political aifrliations that traverse and also transform inter-Asian spaces and pathways to mobility This book contains articles previously published in two issues of Griz icczl Asian S.¢udie5.- Vol. 40, No. 4 (2008) and Vol. 41, No. 1 (2009). Nicole Constable is professor of anthropology at the University of Pittsburgh. She is the author of Christian Souls and Chinese Spirits: Hakka Identity in Hong Kong (University of California Press, 1994), Maia' to Order in Hong Kong (Cor- nell University Press, 1997, 2007), and Romance on a Global Stage: Pen Pals, Wr- iuai Ethnography, and Mail Order Marriages (University of California Press, 2003), and the editor of Guest People: Haleiaa Identity in China and Abroad (University of Washington Press, 1996) and Cross-Border Marriages: Gen_ der and Mobility in Transnational Asia (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005) A --_-..-----'-- MIGRANT WORKERS IN ASIA Distant Divides, Intimate Connections Edited by Nicole Constable E Routledge Taylor Be Francis Group LONDON AND NEW YORK First published 2010 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 URN Simultaneously published in dmc USA and Canada by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor c? Francis Group, an informal business First issued in paperback 2011 © 2010 BCAS, Inc. This book is 21 reproduction of a two-part thematic issue of Critical Asian Studies: 40.4 (2008) and41.1 (2009). The Publisher requests authors who may be citing Mis book to state, also, the bibliographical details of the thematic issues on which the book was based. Typeset in Garamond in the USA by BCAS, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A calaloguc record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 15: 978-0-415-57814-1 (hack) ISBN 13: 978-0-415-50949-7 (pack) Contents Abstracts vii Preface - Distant Divides and Intimate Connections 1 Nicole Constable 1. On Sentimental Orientalists, Christian Zionists, and Working Class Cosmopolitans: Filipina Domestic Workers' journeys to Israel and Beyond 1 3 Claudia Liebelt 2. High in the Hierarchy, Rich in Diversity: Asian Domestic Workers, Their Networks, and Employers' Preferences in Yemen 27 Marina de Regt 3. Of Maids and Madams: Sri Lankan Domestic Workers and Their Employers in Jordan 45 Elizabeth .Frantz 4. Advocating for Sri Lankan Migrant Workers: Obstacles and Challenges 67 Michele R. Gamburd 5. Transcending the Border: Transnational imperatives in Singapore's Migrant Worker Rights Movement 87 Lenore Lyons 6. The Making of a Transnational Grassroots Migrant Movement: A Case Study of Hong Kong's Asian Migrants' Coordinating Body 1 U5 Hsiao-Chuan Hsia 7. Migrant Workers and the Many States of Protest in Hong Kong 1 27 Nicole Constable Undocumented Indonesian Workers in Macau: The Human Outcome of Colluding Interests 145 Amy Sim and Vivienne Wee Notes T64 References 183 Contributors 203 Index 205 \" Abstracts 1. On Sentimental Orientalists, Christian Zionists, and Working Class Cosmo- politansz Filipina Domestic Workers' Journeys to Israel and Beyond Claudia Liebelt Within a global gendered economy based on an international division of la- bor, Filipina migrants have become nannies, maids, and caregivers in affluent homes in numerous Asian and Middle Eastern countries. Filipina migrants who seek employment as domestic workers abroad have been described as "classic cal" transmigrants who keep in touch with family members back home and commute be tween their countries of origin and their destinations. In this article - based on ethnographic research in Israel, Palestine, and the Philippines be- - tween 2005 and 2008 the author argues that Filipina migrants are transna- tional in a much broader sense than commonly discussed in studies on migra- tion: engaged in border-crossing journeys through a number of nation states, many Filipina migrants move on a d on rather than back cmdfortb. They do so within a global hierarchy of desirable destination countries, ranked according to the differences between nation-states Mth regard to salaries and the legal entitlements migrants can claim, the costs and risks migrants have to take in or- der to enter, and these countries' overall subjective and imaginative attractive- ness. By migrating on, Filipina domestic workers acquire an intimate picture of the Middle East "backstage." Some even become self-proclaimed Middle East- ern experts or politically active Christian Zionists or sentimental Orientalists, who, in spite of their Christianity; miss fasting on Yom IGppur or during Ramadan as they continue their journeys toward Western Europe and Nor dl America, where they have hopes of living and perhaps gaining citizenship. 2. High in the Hierarchy, Rich in Diversity: Asian Domestic Workers, Their Networks, and Employers' Preferences in Yemen Marina de Regt The Republic of Yemen, situated on the southwestern edge of the Arabian Peninsula, is the least economically developed country in West Asia. While it is well known that migrant domestic workers are employed in neighboring coun- tries such as Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States, there is little awareness that most domestic work in Yemen is also done by migrant women. The majority of mi- grant domestic workers come from Somalia and Ethiopia, but women from Asian countries, such as the Philippines, Indonesia, India, and Sri Lanka also fill this role. These Asian women are positioned at the top ofYemeni employers' hi- vii viii Migrant Workers in Asia erarchy of domes tic workers- they have a high status, are employed by the upper classes, and receive the highest salaries. Ethiopian and Somali women have 8 lower status: they are employed by the middle and upper middle classes and re- ceive lower salaries. Yet, women from Asian countries do not constitute a homo geneous category; important differences are evident among them and, as well in the preferences of employers for particular categories of Asian women. This article analyzes some of these differences in respect to recruitment, employ rent, and living conditions, access to social support networks, and contacts with fellow countrywomen. The author argues that the shifting preferences of employers relate to the various recruitment and support networks available to Asian women. This article is based on anthropological fieldwork, interviews with fifteen Asian domestic workers, and interviews with employers in two cit ies in Yemen from 2003 to 2006. 5. Of Maids and Madams: Sri Lankan Domestic Workers and Their Employers in Jordan Elizabeth Frantz More than 100,000 Sri Lankan women leave their homes each year to seek employment as domestic workers in the Arab world. The oil-rich Gulf States re main the biggest recruiters, but demand has been rising sharply in Jordan where few studies of the phenomenon have been undertaken. This article ana lyses the social, economic, and political factors influencing the market for for eight domestic workers in Jordan and describes how demand there has been few eled by changes in class formation and kinship. It focuses on the largest group - - of domestic workers in Jordan Sri Lankans and draws on extensive field work in Sri Lanka as well as Jordan. '1'he article explores the dynamic relation ships between domestic workers and the families who employ them, arguing that an essential strategy used by both groups involves the construction of rela sons of dependency The article also chronicles Sri Lankan migrants' expert ences, suggesting that there are meaningful cohorts, which are differentiated not by age, but length of stay and place of residence, that have distinct expert ences, attitudes to the host country; and homeward orientations- The use of Christian worship and conversion as coping strategies are also described. The author argues that several factors relating to the ways paid domestic work are managed by the state, recruiting agencies, and employers have hindered collec five action for workers' rights. In the absence of other forms of activism faith-based networks fill the void, providing essential support to migrants in need. 4. Advocating For Sri Lankan Migrant Workers: Obstacles and Challenges Michele R. Gamburd Nearly a million Sri Lankan women labor overseas w migrant workers, the vast majority in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries in West Asia Abstracts ix They are poorly paid and vulnerable to a wide variety of exploitative labor prac- tices at home and abroad. Despite the importance of worker remittances to Sri Lanka's national economy, and in spite of the nation's history of organized labor and active political participation, migrants have received only anemic support from the state, labor unions, feminist organizations, and mi rant-oriented nongovernmental organizations. The article contextualizes Sri Lankan migra- tion within larger-scale economic dynamics (such as global capitalist policies and processes) and local-level ideological formations (such as local political his- tories and culturally shaped gender norms). The author argues that political freedoms in destination countries have a significant effect on organizing activi- ties in both host and sending nations. Comparing the Sri Lankan and Philippine situations, the author contends that the vibrant activism in the Philippines cor- relates with the liberal organizing climates in the European Union and in East and Southeast Asia, while the paucity of organizing in Sri Lanka correlates with the strict repression of guest workers in the GCC. Compared to other destina- tions, the (ICC countries give workers (particularly women) less chance for au- tonomous activities, are less open to labor organizing, and are less responsive to political protest- 5. Transcending the Border: Transnational Iniperatives in Singapore's Mi- grant Worker Rights Movement Lenore Lyons In the last live years, interest among civil society actors in the issues migrant domestic workers face in Singapore has exploded. Nongovernmental organiza- tions (NGOs), informal networks, and faith-based groups have all formed to ad- dress the needs and interests of these workers. Most of these organizations are welfare-oriented, providing support services, training programs, and social net- working opportunities. Some engage in advocacy and research activities. This latter group has lobbied suecesslillly for important changes in how female mi- grant workers are recruited into and deployed within the domestic labor mar- ket. To date, their activities have been focused at the local level through their en- gagerncnts with the Singaporean government, employment agencies, and employers. This orientation, however, has recently begun to change as they seek to develop transnational networks and support regional and international campaigns. This article examines the reasons behind this interest in cross-hor- der organizing through detailed case studies of two advocacy-oriented NGOs, Transient Workers Count Too and the Humanitarian Organisation for Migration Economics. The article explains that although a "transnational imperative" has begun to shape the activities of these two NGOs, they have different motivations for engaging beyond the border. By revealing a diversity of forms and meanings associated with the processes of "sealing up," this article contributes to the broader scholarly understanding of the complex nature of transnational orga- nizing and challenges earlier studies that assert that transnational activism is a necessary and natural outcome of migrant worker organizing.