Conservation of resources genetic forest in tropical management and concepts Principles Based on the work of R.H. Kemp with scientific review by G. Namkoong and Wadsworth F.H. Thedesignationsemployedandthepresentationofmaterialinthis pubUcationdonotimplytheexpressionofanyopinionwhatsoeveron the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nationsconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry,territory,cityor areaorofitsauthorities,orconcerningthedelimitationofItsfrontiers orboundaries. M-30 ISBN 92-5-103309-9 AN rights reserved. No partofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrievalsystem,ortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechani- cat,photocopyingorotherwise,withoutthepriorpermissionofthecopyrightowner. Applicationsforsuchpermission,withastatementofthepurposeandextentofthe reproduction,shouldbeaddressedtotheDirector,PublicationsDivision,Foodand Agriculture Organization ofthe United Nations. Viale delle Termedi Caracalla. 00100Rome, Italy. FAO 1993 iii FOREWORD Growing populations and pressure for social and economic development are leading to increasing rates of destruction and degradation of natural habitats, including forests and woodlands. The loss of natural resources and the degradation of land are already affecting the economies and well-being of the people in many countries, especially in the tropics. The loss of habitats are leading to accelerated rates of loss of genetic resources, which are fundamentally important in the adaptation and improvement of plant species presently under cultivation and those whose value is yet to be ascertained. It is today widely recognized that the existing Protected Area system on its own is not sufficient to provide the necessary geographic and biological coverage to conserve either the exceptional diversity of tropical forests or the genetic resources of their main component species. It is also recognized that, to succeed, conservation must be seen not as a constraint but as an integral part of development. Although forest management interventions will cause more rapid changes in the composition of ecosystems than natural forces and, at times, will also accelerate or alter successional changes, such interventions can be rendered compatible with the conservation of the genetic resources of the species under use. The sustained utilization of forests to meet present-day needs coupled with the maintenance of a network of areas dedicated to the protection of ecosystems and their functions, provides the only solution for lasting, genetic conservation. In accordance with its mandate, FAO has for the past 40 years published a number of manuals on the sustainable management of tropical forests, complemented over the past 20 years by guides on the conservation of forest genetic resources. The technical feasibility of both tropical forest management and conservation have been stressed repeatedly in these documents. The present book constitutes a first step towards a more systematic approach to the provision of guidelines for harmonizing sustainable utilization and conservation of genetic resources of tropical forest trees. Many presently prescribed forest management interventions could with minor adjustment be made less harmful to conservation concerns. Conversely, some compromises could be made in existing methodologies for the conservation of forest genetic resources which could help achieve the main aims of conservation while at the same time meeting pressing, present-day needs for the goods and environmental services provided by the forest. This document outlines present forest management practices, illustrated by case studies from three tropical countries. It briefly reviews available strategies and methodologies fof the conservation of forest genetic resources in the light of their compatibility with sustainable use of the resources targeted for conservation. It is planned to publish, in the near future, a companion volume to the present book, in which more specific guidance is given on the management of specific forest types and tree species, in situations in which varying degrees of priority are given to production and conservation respectively, while at the same time meeting at least some of the needs of both of these two complementary aspects. f.P. Lanly Director Forest Resources Division IV Acknowledgements The present study is based on the work of Mr. R.H. Kemp of the United Kingdom and was carried out under the technical guidance of staff of the Forest Resources Division of FAO. Professor Gene Namkoong (U.S.A.) and Dr. F.H. Wadsworth (U.S.A.) provided scientific review of the document, which also benefited from the comments of Dr. J. Wyatt-Smith (U.K.) and colleagues in IUCN, Unesco, the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (U.K.) and the Oxford Forestry Institute (U.K.). Thanks are due to Dr. D. Boshier for providing information related to Cordia alliodora (see Appendix 1), and to the Overseas Development Administration (ODA, U.K.) for providing information and material related to the Case Studies on Ghana and India. Valuable inputs were further made by J.R. Palmer, M.E.D. Poore and T.J. Synnott, among many others. Greatest credit for achievements in the field on which information in this document is based, however, is due to the dedicated efforts of national forestry and other staff in the countries concerned. The deep interest of professional foresters in the nature, complexity and functioning of the natural forests and their openness and willingness to discuss these issues and to share their in-depth knowledge for common benefit, is gratefully acknowledged. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Executive Sumary vii Glossary xi Key to Abbreviations xiv PART I Introduction 1 . 1 2. The Nature of Forest Genetic Resources 5 2.1 Levels and structure of genetic diversity 5 2.2 Ecosystem conservation 6 2.3 Conservation of target species 7 2.4 Conservation of provenances 7 2.5 Values of genetic diversity 8 2.6 Use values and option values 9 2.7 Precautionary values 9 2.8 Existence value 10 2.9 Location of conservation areas 10 2.10 The link to production forests 11 2.11 Size of conservation areas 11 2.12 Dynamic conservation 12 2.13 Disturbance and succession 12 2.14 Logging and genetic diversity 13 3. Impacts of Management in Production Forests 15 3.1 Continuity and control 15 3.2 Economic and market influences 16 3.3 Forest inventory 19 3.4 Forest dynamics 21 3.5 Regeneration 23 3.6 Silviculture 25 3.7 Harvesting 28 3.8 Non-timber forest products 30 3.9 Involvement of local people 32 4. The Future of Tropical Forests 35 4.1 Population and land use 35 4.2 Timber demand and international trade 36 4.3 Tropical forests and environmental concerns 39 4.4 Protected Area systems 41 4.5 Buffer Zone forest 43 5. Strategies for in situ conservation in procuction forests 45 5.1 National policies 45 5.2 Management information 48 5.3 Management systems 49 5.4 Management plans 52 PART II CASE STUDIES 59 6. Ghana 61 6.1 The economy 61 6.2 The environment 61 6.3 Diversity 62 6.4 Management for timber production 62 6.5 Policy: linking production and conservation 64 6.6 Non-timber forest products 64 6.7 Forest revenue systems 65 6.8 Forest inventory 67 6.9 Setting priorities 68 6.10 Management and harvesting 70 6.11 Regeneration and silviculture 71 6.12 Reproductive biology 72 6.13 Integration and security 72 7. Brazil: the Amazon forests 73 7.1 Legal framework 73 7.2 Setting priorities 75 7.3 Management options 76 7.4 Secondary forest and non-timber forest products 77 7.5 Information, research and coordination 78 8. India: the Western Ghat forests, Karnataka 79 8.1 National policy 79 8.2 Western Ghat forests 80 8.3 Strategy for integrated development and conservation 81 Appendix 1. Methodology of a study of the reproductive biology and genetics of Cordia alliodora 85 Box 1. The role of logged forests in the conservation of species richness and genetic diversity 14 Box 1. Management of diversity through diversity of management 56 References 91 Cover photo; Recently logged forest, Sarawak (Malaysia). R.H. Kemp vli EXECUTIVE SUMMARY General Considerations 1 . There is today a growing realization at national and international levels of the value of forests as a renewable resource and of their role in the production of a range of goods and environmental services. The latter include the role of the tropical forests as a source of genetic materials for the adaptation and improvement of plant species presently under cultivation and use, and those whose value is yet to be ascertained. 2. Increased populations and pressure for social and economic development in most tropical countries contribute to a continuing trend of diminishing areas under forest cover despite concern for the tropical forest. They also severely limit the possibilities for extending existing systems of fully protected areas. 3. While the exceptional biological diversity of tropical forests constitutes a unique national and global asset, the extent and integrity of this diversity are therefore rapidly diminishing. 4. The continuing availability of diversity and genetic resources is fundamental for the sustainable development of nations. Conservation of genetic resources of forest trees and other woody species is closely related to all other forms of diversity, and is essential for sustaining the productive and protective values of the forest. 5. In spite of their importance at national as well as local levels, forests containing socio-economically valuable tree species have rarely been targeted when planning and establishing Protected Areas. Therefore, managed production forests play a key role in programmes aimed at the conservation of genetic resources of such tree species and are a necessary complement to conservation efforts undertaken through Protected Area management. 6. Management interventions in the forest can be aimed mainly at the production of timber, wood and other products, the protection of soil and water, or the conservation of biological diversity and genetic resources. Productive and protective purposes can be rendered compatible with conservation concerns through sound planning and inter-sectoral coordination of activities at the national level. 7. International concern for the conservation of biological diversity is likely to lead to increased support to tropical countries through both aid and trade channels. Since it is now widely recognized that the Protected Area system on its own is insufficient to provide the necessary geographical and biological coverage, such assistance may in the future be directed increasingly to support forest management carried out with due concern for genetic conservation. Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources 8. Genetic resources are associated with the different levels of diversity that exist in nature, from ecosystems to species, populations, individuals and genes. These levels interact closely and all must be considered when conservation objectives are defined and when corresponding action is specified. V111 9. Conservation of genetic resources in situ is dependent on maintaining the essential functional components of the ecosystem. It implies the planned and systematic management of identified target species in a network of conservation areas which will include Strictly Protected Areas as well as managed forests and multiple-use reserves. 10. Tropical forests are dynamic and subject to change through natural disturbance and succession; the aim of conservation is not to freeze a given state but to contain a dynamically evolving system. 11. Lack of information on population biology, reproductive systems, variation and genetics of most tropical tree species limits the possibilities for the deliberate management of their genetic resources. Maintaining a broad genetic base through the conservation of a range of provenances of target species is likely to be the safest available option until more adequate data are available. 12. Conservation efforts must be planned at the national level, but close linkages to regional and global efforts are necessary to ensure success. Conservation of Genetic Resources and Forest Management 13. The sustained utilization of forests to meet present-day needs coupled with the maintenance of a network of areas dedicated to the protection of ecosystems and their functions, provides the only solution for lasting, genetic conservation. Harmonizing conservation and management for the production of goods and services is especially important in relation to tropical tree species which are not included in plantation and domestication programmes. 14. The domination of short-term economic and market forces over ecological and technical considerations have frequently been the cause of past failures to attain sustainability in natural forest management and conservation of the species being utilized in the tropics. 15. Information on forest composition and growth is critically important for both sustainable production and genetic conservation; broadly-based inventories, including botanical surveys, regeneration sampling and information on non-timber forest products, can be combined to serve both objectives. 16. Some silvicultural operations, including canopy manipulations to favour certain species and individuals, can lead to a reduction in the overall diversity of tree species in a stand. However, these practices might also be skilfully used to maintain or restore diversity, in selected areas. 17. Logging is at present commonly the only large-scale management intervention in the tropical forest. It may either reduce or enhance species and intra-specific diversity. It may furthermore contribute to the depletion or conservation of the genetic resources of the principal species being utilized, depending on the timing, intensity, frequency and discrimination employed, and on the effectiveness of protection and management of subsequent regeneration.