Concise Encyclopedia of Plant Pathology FOOD PRODUCTS PRESS® Crop Science Amarjit S. Basra, PhD Senior Editor Heterosis and Hybrid Seed Production in Agronomic Cropsedited by Amarjit S. Basra Intensive Cropping: Efficient Use of Water, Nutrients, and Tillageby S. S. Prihar, P. R. Gajri, D. K. Benbi, and V. K. Arora Physiological Bases for Maize Improvementedited by María E. Otegui and Gustavo A. Slafer Plant Growth Regulators in Agriculture and Horticulture: Their Role and Commercial Uses edited by Amarjit S. Basra Crop Responses and Adaptations to Temperature Stressedited by Amarjit S. Basra Plant Viruses As Molecular Pathogensby Jawaid A. Khan and Jeanne Dijkstra In Vitro Plant Breedingby Acram Taji, Prakash P. Kumar, and Prakash Lakshmanan Crop Improvement: Challenges in the Twenty-First Centuryedited by Manjit S. Kang Barley Science: Recent Advances from Molecular Biology to Agronomy of Yield and Quality edited by Gustavo A. Slafer, José Luis Molina-Cano, Roxana Savin, José Luis Araus, and Ignacio Romagosa Tillage for Sustainable Croppingby P. R. Gajri, V. K. Arora, and S. S. Prihar Bacterial Disease Resistance in Plants: Molecular Biology and Biotechnological Applications by P. Vidhyasekaran Handbook of Formulas and Software for Plant Geneticists and Breedersedited by Manjit S. Kang Postharvest Oxidative Stress in Horticultural Cropsedited by D. M. Hodges EncyclopedicDictionaryofPlantBreedingandRelatedSubjectsbyRolfH.G.Schlegel Handbook of Processes and Modeling in the Soil-Plant Systemedited by D. K. Benbi and R. Nieder The Lowland Maya Area: Three Millennia at the Human-Wildland Interfaceedited by A. Gómez-Pompa, M. F. Allen, S. Fedick, and J. J. Jiménez-Osornio Biodiversity and Pest Management in Agroecosystems, Second Editionby Miguel A. Altieri and Clara I. Nicholls Plant-Derived Antimycotics: Current Trends and Future Prospectsedited by Mahendra Rai and Donatella Mares Concise Encyclopedia of Temperate Tree Fruitedited by Tara Auxt Baugher and Suman Singha Landscape Agroecologyby Paul A Wojkowski Molecular Genetics and Breeding of Forest Treesedited by Sandeep Kumar and Matthias Fladung Concise Encylcopedia of Plant Pathology by P. Vidhyasekaran Testing of Genetically Modified Organisms in Foodsedited by Farid E. Ahmed Concise Encyclopedia of Bioresource Technologyedited by Ashok Pandey Agrometeorology: Principles and Applications of Climate Studies in Agricultureby Aarpal S. Mavi and Graeme J. Tupper Concise Encyclopedia of Plant Pathology P. Vidhyasekaran, PhD, FNA Food Products Press® The Haworth Reference Press Imprints of The Haworth Press, Inc. New York • London • Oxford Published by Food Products Press® and The Haworth Reference Press, imprints of The Haworth Press, Inc., 10AliceStreet,Binghamton,NY13904-1580. ©2004byTheHaworthPress,Inc.Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisworkmaybereproducedor utilizedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopying,microfilm, andrecording,orbyanyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwriting from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America. Cover design by Marylouise E. Doyle. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Vidhyasekaran, P. Concise encyclopedia of plant pathology / P. Vidhyasekaran. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-56022-942-X (hard cover : alk. paper)—ISBN 1-56022-943-8 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Plant diseases—Encylopedias. I. Title. SB728.V525 2003 632'.3'03—dc21 2003002492 CONTENTS Foreword xv Sally A. Miller Preface xvii Chapter 1. Birth and Development of Plant Pathology 1 History 1 Modern Plant Pathology 4 CAUSAL ORGANISMS Chapter 2. Bacteria 11 Structure of Bacterial Cells 11 Reproduction of Bacteria 13 Nomenclature of Bacterial Pathogens 14 Classification of Plant Bacterial Pathogens 16 Systematic Position of Crop Bacterial Pathogens 18 Chapter 3. Fungi, Including Chromista and Protozoa 29 Three Kingdoms Containing “Fungi”: Fungi, Chromista, and Protozoa 29 Oomycota 30 Protozoa 32 Phyla in the Kingdom Fungi 33 Ascomycota 34 Basidiomycota 40 Chytridiomycota 45 Zygomycota 46 Mitosporic Fungi 47 Systematic Positions of Crop Fungal Pathogens (Including Chromista and Protozoa) 48 Chapter 4. Parasitic Flagellate Protozoa 71 Phloem Necrosis of Coffee 71 Hartrot of Coconut 72 Marchitez Disease of Oil Palm 72 Chapter 5. Parasitic Green Algae 73 Economic Importance 73 Disease Symptoms 73 Life Cycle 74 Disease Management 75 Chapter 6. Parasitic Higher Plants 77 Striga 77 Orobanche 79 Loranthus 80 Cassytha 80 Cuscuta 80 Chapter 7. Parasitic Nematodes 83 Structure of Nematodes 83 Plant Parasitic Nematodes 84 Disease Symptoms 90 Management of Parasitic Nematodes 92 Chapter 8. Phytoplasmas and Spiroplasmas 99 Phytoplasmas 99 Spiroplasmas 104 Chapter 9. Viroids 107 Structure of Viroids 107 Viroid Infection Process and Management 108 Virusoids (Encapsidated, Viroidlike, Satellite RNAs) 109 Chapter 10. Viruses 111 Structure of Viruses 111 Mechanism of Plant Virus Infection 118 Inclusion Bodies 122 Satellite Viruses, Satellite RNA, and Defective Interfering Viruses 123 Classification of Viruses 124 Systematic Position of Important Viral Pathogens 130 Symptoms of Crop Virus Diseases 140 Mode of Transmission of Virus Diseases 141 Virus Disease Diagnosis 152 Important Crop Diseases Caused by Viruses 152 COMMON DISEASE SYMPTOMS, ASSESSMENT, AND DIAGNOSIS Chapter 11. Common Disease Symptoms 157 Chapter 12. Crop Disease Assessment 165 Disease Incidence Assessment 165 Disease Severity Assessment 166 Disease Index 169 Area Under Disease Progress Curve (AUDPC) 169 Remote Sensing 169 Digital Image Analysis 170 Chapter 13. Crop Disease Diagnosis 173 Diagnosis Based on Disease Symptoms 173 Diagnosis by Immunological Techniques 174 Nucleic Acid Probe-Based Methods 184 Diagnosis of Crop Fungal Diseases 190 Diagnosis of Crop Bacterial Diseases 191 Diagnosis of Crop Viral Diseases 192 Diagnosis of Viroid Diseases 195 Diagnosis of Phytoplasma Diseases 195 Plant Clinics and Diagnostic Service Laboratories 196 Digitally Assisted Diagnosis 196 CROP DISEASE EPIDEMIOLOGY Chapter 14. Assessment of Disease Progress 205 What Is Epidemiology? 205 Disease Progress Curve 206 Area Under Disease Progress Curve (AUDPC) 208 Apparent Infection Rate 209 Chapter 15. Factors Involved in Disease Increase 211 Environmental Factors Affecting Sporulation 211 Environmental Factors Affecting Spore Release 212 Environmental Factors Affecting Spore Dispersal 214 Measurement of Spore Dispersal 215 Disease Gradients 218 Environmental Factors Affecting Spread of Bacterial Pathogens 219 Environmental Factors Affecting Infection and Disease Development 219 Chapter 16. Forecasting Models 225 Types of Models 225 Specific Models 226 CROP DISEASE MANAGEMENT Chapter 17. Biological Control—Microbial Pesticides 239 Trichoderma 239 PseudomonasSpecies 245 Other Organisms 251 Commercially Available Microbial Pesticides 258 Chapter 18. Biological Control—Mycorrhiza 271 What Is a Mycorrhiza? 271 Diseases Controlled by Mycorrhizal Fungi 272 Mechanisms Involved in Biocontrol by Mycorrhizae 272 Mass Production of Mycorrhizal Fungi 273 Commercialization of Mycorrhizae 274 Chapter 19. Breeding for Disease Resistance— Conventional Breeding 277 Types of Disease Resistance 277 Interaction Between Resistance Genes 279 Molecular Marker-Assisted Selection 280 Near-Isogenic Lines (NIL) 283 Common Breeding Methods for Disease Resistance 283 Breeding for Quantitative (Partial) Resistance Using QTL Linked with Markers 285 Chapter 20. Breeding for Disease Resistance— Genetic Engineering 293 Transgenic Plants Expressing Plant Resistance Genes 293 Transgenic Plants Expressing Plant Defense Genes 295 Transgenic Plants Expressing Genes Involved in a Signal Transduction System 299 Transgenic Plants Expressing Plant Proteinase-Inhibitor Genes 302 Transgenic Plants Expressing Viral Genes 302 Transgenic Plants Expressing Fungal and Bacterial Genes 306 Transgenic Plants Expressing Insect Genes 308 Transgenic Plants Expressing Animal Genes 310 Transgenic Plants Expressing Detoxification Genes 311 TransgenicPlants Expressing Genes Encoding Antibodies 312 Practical Utility of Transgenic Plants in Crop-Disease Management 312 Chapter 21. Breeding for Disease Resistance—In Vitro Selection 325 What Is In Vitro Selection? 325 Types of In Vitro Selection 326 Stability and Heritability of Resistance Evolved Through In Vitro Selection 329 Chapter 22. Chemical Control—Bacterial Diseases 333 Common and Trade Names of the Bactericides and Their Uses 333 Effectiveness of Bactericides 336 Chapter 23. Chemical Control—Fungal Diseases 337 History of Chemical Control 337 Development of Commercially Viable Fungicides 339 Ingredients in Fungicide Formulations 353 Types of Fungicide Formulations 357 Classification of Fungicides 367 Mode of Action of Fungicides 371 Spectrum of Diseases Controlled by Individual Fungicides 381 Fungicide Application 395 Fungicide Resistance 398 Chapter 24. Chemical Control—Fungicide Application Equipment 403 Dusters 403 Sprayers 404 Granule Applicators 407 Seed Treaters 407 Soil Application Equipment 408