The Farlex Grammar Book: Complete English Grammar Rules FARLEX International Copyright © 2016 Farlex International All rights reserved. ISBN: 1535231688 ISBN-13: 978-1535231688 Table of contents About the author Preface Editor’s Note English Grammar Parts of Speech Nouns Common and Proper Nouns Nouns of Address Concrete and Abstract Nouns Countable Nouns Uncountable Nouns Collective Nouns Compound Nouns Nominalization (Creating Nouns) Pronouns Personal pronouns Personal Pronouns - Number Personal Pronouns - Person (First person, Second person, Third person) Personal Pronouns - Gender Personal Pronouns - Case Personal Pronouns - Reflexive Pronouns Intensive Pronouns Indefinite Pronouns Demonstrative Pronouns Interrogative Pronouns Relative Pronouns Reciprocal Pronouns Dummy Pronouns Verbs Finite and Non-finite Verbs Transitive and Intransitive Verbs Regular and Irregular Verbs Auxiliary Verbs Primary Auxiliary Verbs Modal Auxiliary Verbs Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Will Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Would Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Shall Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Should Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Can Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Could Modal Auxiliary Verbs - May Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Might Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Must Substituting Modal Verbs Semi-Modal Auxiliary Verbs Infinitives Participles Action Verbs Stative Verbs Linking Verbs Light Verbs Phrasal Verbs Common Phrasal Verbs Conditional Verbs Causative Verbs Factitive Verbs Reflexive Verbs Adjectives Attributive Adjectives Predicative Adjectives Proper Adjectives Collective Adjectives Demonstrative Adjectives Interrogative Adjectives Nominal Adjectives Compound Adjectives Order of Adjectives Degrees of Comparison Comparative Adjectives Superlative Adjectives Adverbs Adverbs of Time Adverbs of Place Adverbs of Manner Adverbs of Degree Mitigators Intensifiers Adverbs of Frequency Adverbs of Purpose Focusing Adverbs Negative Adverbs Conjunctive Adverbs Evaluative Adverbs Viewpoint Adverbs Relative Adverbs Adverbial Nouns Regular and Irregular Adverbs Degrees of Comparison Comparative Adverbs Superlative Adverbs Order of Adverbs Prepositions Prepositional Phrases Categories of Prepositions Common Prepositional Errors Prepositions with Nouns Prepositions with Verbs Prepositions with Adjectives Prepositions in Idioms Idioms that Start with Prepositions Idioms that End with Prepositions Conjunctions Coordinating Conjunctions Correlative Conjunctions Subordinating Conjunctions Other parts of speech Particles Articles Determiners Possessive Determiners Gerunds Gerunds as Objects of Verbs Interjections Inflection (Accidence) Conjugation Tense Present Tense Present Simple Tense Present Continuous Tense (Progressive) Present Perfect Tense Present Perfect Continuous Tense Past Tense Past Simple Tense Past Continuous Tense Past Perfect Tense Past Perfect Continuous Tense Future Tense (Approximation) Future Simple Tense Future Continuous Tense Future Perfect Tense Future Perfect Continuous Tense Aspect Perfective and Imperfective Aspect Aspects of the Present Tense Aspects of the Past Tense Aspects of the Future Tense Mood Indicative Mood Subjunctive Mood Subjunctive Mood - Expressing Wishes Voice Active Voice Passive Voice Middle Voice Speech Reported Speech (Indirect Speech) Grammatical Person Declension Plurals Gender in Nouns Regular and Irregular Inflection Syntax Subjects and Predicates The Subject The Predicate Complements Objects Subject Complements Object Complements Adjective Complements Adverbial Complements Modifiers Adjuncts Phrases Noun Phrases Adjective Phrases Adverbial Phrases Participle Phrases Absolute Phrases Appositives Clauses Independent Clauses Dependent Clauses Noun Clauses Relative Clauses Adverbial Clauses Sentences Compound Sentences Complex Sentences Compound-Complex Sentences Declarative Sentences Interrogative Sentences Negative Interrogative Sentences Imperative Sentences Conditional Sentences Major and Minor Sentences (Regular and Irregular Sentences) Quiz answers Index About the author Peter Herring was born in Boulder, Colorado, and grew up with a passion for reading. He attended the University of British Columbia, in Vancouver, Canada, where he majored in English Literature. He went on to complete a master’s degree in Anglo-Irish Literature and Drama at University College Dublin in Ireland, where he graduated with honors. Peter has worked as an editor since 2009, lending his passion for words to scientific research projects, non-fiction publishing, and The Free Dictionary. He lives in Dublin, Ireland, with his wife and son. About the editor Nick Norlen is the managing editor of The Free Dictionary, where he oversees all editorial projects. After graduating with honors from La Salle University in Philadelphia, he worked as a reporter before joining the Farlex team in 2008. He lives in Newtown, Pennsylvania, with his wife and daughter, whose first word is his favorite word. Preface Grammar is without a doubt one of the most daunting aspects of the English language, an area riddled with complexities, inconsistencies, and contradictions. It has also been in a state of flux for pretty much its entire existence. For native speakers of English, as well as for those learning it as a new language, grammar presents a very serious challenge to speaking and writing both accurately and effectively. Having a single, reliable, go-to reference guide should therefore be indispensable to those trying to learn, improve, or perfect their speech or writing. This book is that guide: a clear, unambiguous, and comprehensive source of information that covers all the relevant topics of English grammar, while still being easy to understand and enjoyable to read. Every topic in the book has been broken down into basic units. Each unit can be read and understood in its own right, but throughout the book you will find cross-references to other sections and chapters to help make it clear how all the pieces fit together. If you’re having trouble understanding something, try going back (or forward) to other related topics in the book. Finally, it must be mentioned that, because English is such a flexible, inconsistent language, the “rules” that are often bandied about are usually not rules at all, but rather guides that reflect how the language is used. Accordingly, the guidelines contained within this book are just that—guidelines. They are not intended to provide constrictive or proscriptive rules that confine everyone to a particular way of speaking or writing. Learning how the English language works will enhance your engagement with speech and writing every day, from the books you read, to the e-mails you write, to the conversations you have with friends and strangers alike. As such, mastering grammar is not an exercise that is confined to the classroom. While it is certainly important to learn the structures, styles, and rules that shape the language, the key to truly learning English is to read and listen to the way people write and speak every day, from the most well-known authors to the people you talk to on the bus. Take the information you find in this book and carry it with you into the world. -P. Herring Editor’s Note This book is written according to the standard styles and spellings used in American English. While major differences between American and British English are usually addressed, some information in the book might not coincide with the styles, tendencies, or preferences of other English-speaking communities. English Grammar Grammar refers to the way words are used, classified, and structured together to form coherent written or spoken communication. This guide takes a traditional approach to teaching English grammar, breaking the topic into three fundamental elements: Parts of Speech, Inflection, and Syntax. Each of these is a discrete, individual part, but they are all intrinsically linked together in meaning. Parts of Speech In the first part of the guide, we will look at the basic components of English— words. The parts of speech are the categories to which different words are assigned, based on their meaning, structure, and function in a sentence. We’ll look in great detail at the seven main parts of speech—nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions—as well as other categories of words that don’t easily fit in with the rest, such as particles, determiners, and gerunds. By understanding the parts of speech, we can better understand how (and why) we structure words together to form sentences. Inflection Although the parts of speech provide the building blocks for English, another very important element is inflection, the process by which words are changed in form to create new, specific meanings. There are two main categories of inflection: conjugation and declension. Conjugation refers to the inflection of verbs, while declension refers to the inflection of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs. Whenever we change a verb from the present tense to the past tense, for example, we are using conjugation. Likewise, when we make a noun plural to show that there is more than one of it, we are using declension. Syntax The third and final part of the guide will focus on syntax, the rules and patterns that govern how we structure sentences. The grammatical structures that constitute syntax can be thought of as a hierarchy, with sentences at the top as the largest cohesive unit in the language and words (the parts of speech) at the bottom. We’ll begin the third part by looking at the basic structural units present in all sentences—subjects and predicates—and progressively move on to larger classes of structures, discussing modifiers, phrases, and clauses. Finally, we will end by looking at the different structures and categories of sentences themselves. Using the three parts together The best way to approach this guide is to think of it as a cross-reference of itself; when you see a term or concept in one section that you’re unfamiliar with, check the other sections to find a more thorough explanation. Neither parts of speech nor inflection nor syntax exist as truly separate units; it’s equally important to examine and learn about the different kinds of words, how they can change to create new meaning, and the guidelines by which they are structured into sentences. When we learn to use all three parts together, we gain a much fuller understanding of how to make our speech and writing not only proper, but natural and effective. Parts of Speech Definition The parts of speech are the primary categories of words according to their function in a sentence. English has seven main parts of speech. We’ll look at a brief overview of each below; continue on to their individual chapters to learn more about them. Nouns Nouns are words that identify or name people, places, or things. Nouns can function as the subject of a clause or sentence, an object of a verb, or an object of a preposition. Words like cat, book, table, girl, and plane are all nouns. Pronouns Pronouns are words that represent nouns (people, places, or things). Grammatically, pronouns are used in the same ways as nouns; they can function as subjects or objects. Common pronouns include I, you, she, him, it, everyone, and somebody. Verbs Verbs are words that describe the actions—or states of being—of people, animals, places, or things. Verbs function as the root of what’s called the predicate, which is required (along with a subject) to form a complete sentence; therefore, every sentence must include at least one verb. Verbs include action words like run, walk, write, or sing, as well as words describing states of being, such as be, seem, feel, or sound. Adjectives Adjectives are words that modify (add description to) nouns and (occasionally) pronouns. They can be a part of either the subject or the predicate. Common adjectives are red, blue, fast, slow, big, tall, and wide. Adverbs Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or even entire clauses. Depending on what they modify (and how), adverbs can appear anywhere in the sentence. Adverbs are commonly formed from adjectives by adding “-ly” to the end, as in slowly, quickly, widely, beautifully, or commonly. Prepositions Prepositions are words that express a relationship between a noun or pronoun (known as the object of the preposition) and another part of the sentence. Together, these form prepositional phrases, which can function as adjectives or as adverbs in a sentence. Some examples of prepositional phrases are: on the table, in the shed, and across the field. (The prepositions are in bold.) Conjunctions Conjunctions are words that connect other words, phrases, or clauses, expressing a specific kind of relationship between the two (or more) elements. The most common conjunctions are the coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for, so, and yet. Other Parts of Speech In addition to the seven parts of speech above, there are several other groupings of words that do not neatly fit into any one specific category—particles, articles, determiners, gerunds, and interjections. Many of these share characteristics with one or more of the seven primary categories. For example, determiners are similar in many ways to adjectives, but they are not completely the same, and most particles are identical in appearance to prepositions but have different grammatical functions. Because they are harder to classify in comparison to the seven primary categories above, they’ve been grouped together in this guide under the general category Other Parts of Speech. Nouns Definition Nouns are words that indicate a person, place, or thing. In a sentence, nouns can function as the subject or the object of a verb or preposition. Nouns can also follow linking verbs to rename or re-identify the subject of a sentence or clause; these are known as predicate nouns. The Subject The subject in a sentence or clause is the person or thing doing, performing, or controlling the action of the verb. For example: • “The dog chased its tail.” (The noun dog is performing the action of the verb chase.) • “Mary reads a book every week.” (The proper noun Mary is performing the action of the verb read.) Objects Grammatical objects have three grammatical roles: the direct object of a verb, the indirect object of a verb, or the object of a preposition. Direct objects Direct objects are what receive the action of the verb in a sentence or clause. For example: • “The dog chased its tail.” (The noun tail is receiving the action of the verb chase.) • “Mary reads a book every week.” (The noun book is receiving the action of the verb read.) Indirect objects An indirect object is the person or thing who receives the direct object of the verb. For instance: • “Please pass Jeremy the salt.” (The proper noun Jeremy is receiving the direct object salt, which receives the action of the verb pass.) • “I sent the company an application for the job.” (The noun company is receiving the direct object application, which receives the action of the verb sent.)