12/1/00 newone.doc COMPETING FICTIONS: THE USES OF CHRISTIAN APOCALYPTIC IMAGERY IN CONTEMPORARY POPULAR FICTIONAL WORKS PART ONE: PREMILLENNIALIST APOCALYPTIC FICTIONS Thomas M. Doyle I. INTRODUCTION Two forms of fiction using Christian apocalyptic imagery have recently entered mainstream popular culture. The first form I will refer to as premillennialist apocalyptic fiction. This form is usually in the style of the contemporary political thriller or techno-thriller. Its essence is that follows the outlines of the modern premillennialist “rooster” 1 script as first popularized by The Late Great Planet Earth,2 typically with more attention to prophetic detail than The Omen and other earlier fictional (often horror) works.3 The second form, which I will refer to as anti-apocalyptic fiction, has emerged from various precedents in the science fiction and fantasy genres and uses Christian apocalyptic imagery to question the fundamentals of the premillennialist vision. The emergence of these forms is indicative of changes within society and publishing affecting the receptiveness to millennial themes in fiction and changes in millennial concerns as we approached the years 2000-2001. The contrasts among these forms and the interpretive works that spawned them illustrate the broader structural distinctions among the varieties of theological and fictional (specifically science fiction/fantasy and political or techno-thriller) modes of discourse. Both forms have the potential either to mitigate millennial tension or, in their more extreme forms and in confrontation with each other, to heighten such tension. 1 Term taken from the Center for Millennial Studies lexicon. See www.mille.org/welcome/logo.html. 2 Hal Lindsey, The Late Great Planet Earth (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Press, 1970). 3 The big-screen Omen films are listed at the end of the paper. A book and a TV movie carried the saga further. The third of the Omen films, The Final Conflict, like many other horror films, also incongruously makes Catholic clergy the heroes in a premillennialist structure. See Gordon McGill, The Final Conflict (New York: Signet, 1980). {PAGE } Recent examples of premillennialist apocalyptic fiction include the Left Behind series and novels by Hal Lindsey and Pat Robertson. Apocalyptic fiction using Christian imagery almost by definition follows certain Christian assumptions, regardless of whether the target audience is premillennialist or even Christian. The desirability of assisting Good in the ultimate destruction of Evil and the relinquishing of human destiny to the Good are typically not questioned. Questioning these assumptions is in itself regarded as blasphemous (not only by premillennialists), and therefore risky for publishers, filmmakers etc. who want to reach a mass audience. It is therefore surprising that in various current popular fictional representations of the apocalypse using Christian imagery and scenarios and accepting certain Christian (even premillennialist evangelical Christian) premises there has emerged a different pattern. Instead of depicting the horror of the (temporary) triumph of evil or the ecstasy of the millennial aftermath, these “anti-rooster” representations stress the undesirability and avoidability of the apocalyptic conflict from a human perspective, and oppose (usually with success) human interests against both angelic and demonic plans for such a conflict. Some had cloaked this pattern in allegory, while others have been quite explicit. I have divided consideration of these new fictional genre forms into two parts, each a self-contained paper. This first part outlines a number of examples of premillennialist apocalyptic fiction and describes the usual conventions and recurring themes and patterns of such fiction. We will consider why the move to fiction by premillennialist authors has been made in recent years, and how the fictionalization of the premillennialist script changes that script, both strengthening and undermining its {PAGE } rhetorical effectiveness.4 Part Two5 (also published in this issue of the Journal of Millennial Studies) describes the anti-apocalyptic works that have recently emerged. II. FORMATION OF A GENRE A. Why Premillennialist Fiction? Although apocalyptic fiction is far from new,6 works of fiction which more or less strictly track the premillennialist dispensational interpretations of biblical prophecy have exploded in number and popularity in recent years.7 In a 1993 analysis of evangelical culture, such works do not even merit a mention, while other genres such as the Christian romance novel are given detailed treatment.8 Given the current popularity of such apocalyptic fiction, it is difficult at first to see why the new authors and their 4 See Stephen D. O’Leary, Arguing the Apocalypse (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994) for an examination of apocalypse as rhetoric, which along with his rhetorical categories (e.g., tragic versus comic apocalyptic rhetoric) has been extremely helpful for the analysis in Parts One and Two of my paper. 5 Thomas M. Doyle, Competing Fictions: The Uses of Christian Apocalyptic Imagery in Contemporary Popular Fictional Works. Part Two: Anti-Apocalyptic Fictions. 6 Indeed, some post-modern theorists such as Jacques Derrida would go so far as to say that fiction is inherently apocalyptic. 7 I distinguish these premillennialist works from “new Messiah” works; that is, modern recapitulations of the messiah story, which have a longer history than the modern premillennialist apocalyptic novel. These more allegorical works often use the Second Coming as a device to explore the role of the divine and our reactions to it in contemporary society, but such works often lacked a truly apocalyptic scale of conflict. Examples include Glenn Kleier’s The Last Day (New York: Warner Books, 1997), Charles Sailor’s Second Son (New York: Avon, 1979) and Edwin Black’s Format C (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Brookline Books, 1999). Such New Agish works may well find a popular, even Christian audience, but they do not comport with premillennialist beliefs and premillennialists would even likely disapprove of their doctrinal bases. 8 Erling Jorstad, Popular Religion in America: The Evangelical Voice (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1993) 137-47. The Christian romance genre has a longer history in Christian book publishing, emerging in the 1970s. See Jorstad, Popular Religion in {PAGE } publishers, who often have had considerable experience writing and editing nonfictional interpretive works, waited so long to make the move to fiction. After all, The Late Great Planet Earth script was published in 1970. The Christian romance novel, and later the contemporary spiritual warfare fantasy,9 had previously overcome many, but not all, of the concerns of evangelical editors with the possibilities of fictional works within Christian publishing.10 With nonfictional prophecy interpretation as another mainstay of Christian publishing, fictional works based on such interpretations would appear natural. But other than such noteworthy exceptions as the Thief in the Night film series11 (itself not a conventionally distributed or viewed work), this fictional potential remained by and large untapped until the 1990s. Apparently, there were other inhibitions in writing and publishing premillennialist apocalyptic fiction. The new authors of apocalyptic fiction themselves frequently feel compelled to justify the move to fiction, which speaks to the novelty of the form and their inhibition in pursuing it. Larry Burkett, author of a secular apocalyptic nonfiction book, The Coming Economic Earthquake, was quite tentative is his America, 142-43. It’s influence is felt in the Harlequin-style romances that are the frequent B-stories in apocalyptic fiction plots, as discussed below. 9 The success of the spiritual warfare genre also predated that of premillennialist apocalyptic fiction. See Jorstad, Popular Religion in America, 143-145. 10 See Jorstad, Popular Religion in America, 142. 11 Other exceptions include Salem Kirban, 666 (Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House, 1970) (reprinted in 1998); Carol Balizet, The Seven Last Years (New York: Bantam, 1980); and Dan Betzer, Beast: A Novel of the Future World Dictator (Lafayette, LA: Prescott Press, 1985) (from a list in Bernard McGinn, Antichrist: Two Thousand Years of the Human Fascination with Evil (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), 271 n.84). {PAGE } acknowledgements to The Illuminati, one of the first of the new wave of premillennialist apocalyptic novels. Obviously this is a book unlike any I have ever written before. Prior to The Illuminati I had written nonfiction only. It is my sincere desire, as a fiction reader myself, that good, non-offensive fiction be made available to the public.12 As his book was one of the earliest of this wave, and as he was not trained as a biblical scholar, Burkett is anxious to mitigate the rhetorical impact of his novel. My biggest concern in writing a novel is that someone may read too much into it. Obviously I tried to use as realistic a scenario as possible in this story. But it is purely fictional, including characters, events and timing. It should not be assumed that it is prophetic in any regard.13 Indeed, as discussed below, Burkett further mitigates the rhetorical impact of his novel by constructing a dress rehearsal for the true apocalypse rather than the apocalypse per se. In later works, authors continue to apologize for the move to fiction, but take the opposite tact in reinforcing, rather than mitigating, the rhetorical impact of their fictional scenarios. In the introduction to his fictional book, Blood Moon, Hal Lindsey, easily the most widely read author of biblical prophecy interpretation gives justifications related to the power of the apocalyptic argument. First, he notes that, as widely disseminated as his nonfiction works are, “some people remain skeptical.”14 To help overcome this skepticism, he has turned to fiction as an aid to the imagination that offers 12 Larry Burkett, The Illuminati (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1991), Acknowledgements. 13 Larry Burkett, The Illuminati, Acknowledgements. 14 Hal Lindsey, Blood Moon (Palos Verdes, CA: Western Front Publishing, 1996), 2. {PAGE } “just one hypothetical scenario”15 instead of the general outline of events. Finally, he notes that fiction allows an important change of focus. In my non-fiction works, I have described how some of these “macro- events” might take place in our lifetime. But in the genre of fiction, I am able to tell the story through a series of “micro-events” – little stories about people struggling for survival and salvation through the most turbulent and tumultuous period in human history. The big story, then, is told through the eyes of these fictional characters.16 As a forward to the book Apocalypse by Peter and Paul Lalonde (a novelization of a direct-to-video movie), the well-known televangelist Jack Van Impe offers the following description of the fictional representation of biblical prophecy: Make no mistake. This novel is indeed a work of fiction. But just barely. The fact that these events haven’t happened yet makes it fiction. But unlike other novels and stories you may read, something very unique can be said about Apocalypse. It is a book about the future based on Bible truths that will soon occur globally.17 The justification offered for the move to fiction is again the broader reach and power of the fictional argument: And the best news of all is that this book is an absolutely great way to share the message of Bible Prophecy, and of the Lord’s soon return, with unsaved friends and loved ones. So if you know someone who needs to discover the truth of this incredible story, make sure you get and give them a copy of Apocalypse.18 Jerry B. Jenkins, co-author of the Left Behind series, the most popular religious apocalyptic books on the market today, has commented repeatedly on his particular gratification at the ability of the series to reach unbelievers and shore up the 15 Lindsey, Blood Moon, 3. 16 Lindsey, Blood Moon, 4. 17 Peter and Paul Lalonde, Apocalypse: The Novel (Niagara Falls, NY: This Week In Bible Prophecy, 1998), vii. 18 Lalonde, Apocalypse, ix. {PAGE } belief of others.19 From a cruder financial perspective, reaching a broader audience of course also means more sales. Fiction has several other rhetorical advantages not consciously addressed by its authors. One is the ability to set dates without have to stand behind them, thereby generating apocalyptic expectation without commitment to a particular time frame. Another advantage is the ability to argue by implication instead of directly (e.g., associating environmentalist arguments with the forces of the Antichrist without saying directly that environmentalism is evil). Overall, it may more effectively brings future events into present experience. Yet for all the advantages, there was evident reluctance of some of these authors and their publishers to move the apocalyptic argument into fiction. The essential question for fundamentalists, despite Jesus’ use of storytelling, is “If the Bible is to be read literally, why do we need mediators, particularly those who twist its words into fiction?”20 A phone call in the summer of 1999 to Word Publishing, a subsidiary of Thomas Nelson publishers, regarding their fictional catalogue generated the response that they had nothing but the books listed in this paper’s bibliography, since they specialized in “Christian books,” not fiction, as if the two were inimical to each other. Consciously or unconsciously, the authors may realize how, as discussed below, fiction changes the focus of the work in a way that undermines the fatalism of the nonfictional argument. But the most likely conscious reason for the authors’ reluctance to move to fiction is that they perceive fiction is a less serious medium, and that it appears 19 On-line conference with Jerry B. Jenkins, Christian Interactive Network, June 28, 1999. {PAGE } to compromise the claims to truth and underlying biblical certainty in the prophetic argument. The authors deal with this embarrassment with the medium by insisting that their work is different from other fiction, like the made for TV movies that are “based on a true story.” Jack Van Impe instructs the reader in the forward to Apocalypse “And remember, it’s a true story – it just hasn’t happened yet.”21 The back cover to Escape from Armageddon notes that “All the facts come from God’s Word, not from the fantasies of man.”22 This “true fiction” further confuses the boundaries between speculation and fact that are thoroughly muddled in “nonfictional” biblical interpretation. The greater the artistic success, the greater the confusion. On the one hand, a character in Left Behind notes “Bible prophecy is history written in advance,”23 but clearly it is not history even for believers at the level of detail experienced by a fictional character. On the other hand, the Christ Clone trilogy seemingly acknowledges the confusion by quoting Dickens at the beginning of the first volume: “Are these the shadows of things that will be, or are they the shadows of things that may be?”24 Perhaps a major reason for delay was that a suitable genre of fiction had to be created and popularized for these authors to work within, and the basics of the premillennialist script had to be widely familiar and accepted by a least a core potential 20 Douglas E. Winter, Apocalypse Tomorrow, review of Left Behind and Assassins, in Washington Post Book World, Sept. 12, 1999: 9. 21 Lalonde, Apocalypse, ix. 22 Ken and Val Walker, Escape from Armageddon (Glen Waverly, Victoria, Australia: Good News Australia, 1997). The book is viewable at www.vicnet.net.au/~gnaust. 23 Tim LaHaye and Jerry B. Jenkins, Left Behind (Wheaton, Illinois: Tyndale House Publishers, 1995), 214. 24 James BeauSeigneur, In His Image (Rockville, MD: SelectiveHouse, 1997). {PAGE } audience. The fusion of the techno-thriller genre with the premillennialist end-time scenario proved to be an effective and often imitated vehicle for fictionalizing premillennialist apocalyptic arguments. To show why this fusion was effective, we should first turn to the story that premillennialists were concerned with telling. B. The Premillennialist Script. The currently most popular biblical end times scenario was first set forth for a broad audience in Hal Lindsey’s The Late Great Planet Earth. The Late Great Planet Earth was the greatest bestseller of 1970s, with sales of over 20 million by 1990.25 “That book and its author spawned an entire industry devoted to pinning the events of the contemporary world to Scripture.”26 Other works, including works by Lindsey himself, have adjusted the scenario as world events have appeared to dictate. I have included as Appendix One a summary of the future events described in The Late Great Planet Earth and its brethren, since the fictional books discussed here all follow at least the broad outline of their biblical interpretation. Not surprisingly, The Late Great Planet Earth and related nonfiction accounts emphasize the terrible nature of the Tribulation and the undesirability of being “left behind” to face it. The nonfiction accounts are also generally clear that nothing terribly dramatic happens prior to Rapture. 27 The Lindsey apocalypse is an unconditional apocalypse – he addresses groups, not individuals, in his scenarios, and the fate of each groups is certain. 25 Jorstad, Popular Religion in America, 145. 26 Philip Lamy, Millennium Rage (New York: Plenum Press, 1996), 82. {PAGE }