Communication Consultants in Political Campaigns RecentTitlesin the Praeger Series in PoliticalCommunication Robert E. Denton, Jr., GeneralEditor ElectronicMagazines: SoftNews Programs on Network Television William C. Spragens PoliticalCampaignCommunication:Principlesand Practices,ThirdEdition Judith S. Trent and Robert V. Friedenberg CandidateImages in PresidentialElections Edited by Kenneth L. Hacker Earthtalk:CommunicationEmpowermentfor EnvironmentalAction Edited by Star A. Muir and ThomasL. Veenendall The ClintonPresidency:Images,Issues, and CommunicationStrategies Edited by Robert E. Denton, Jr. and Rachel L. Holloway Politics,Media, and ModernDemocracy:An InternationalStudyof Innovations in ElectoralCampaigningand Their Consequences Edited by David L. Swansonand PaoloMancini In Contemptof Congress: Postwar Press Coverage on CapitolHill Mark J. Rozell From the Margins to the Center:ContemporaryWomen and Political Communication PatriciaA. Sullivan and Lynn H. Turner HeadlineDiplomacy:How News Coverage AffectsForeign Policy Philip Seib Campaign Craft:The Stategies,Tactics,and Art of PoliticalCampaign Management Daniel M. Shea InsidePoliticalCampaigns:Theory and Practice Karen S. Johnson-Carteeand Gary A. Copeland RhetoricalStudiesof NationalPoliticalDebates—1996 Edited by Robert V. Friedenberg Communication Consultants in Political Campaigns Ballot Box Warriors Robert V. Friedenberg Praeger Series in Political Communication LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Friedenberg,RobertV. Communicationconsultantsinpoliticalcampaigns : ballotbox warriors / RobertV.Friedenberg. p. cm.—(Praegerseriesinpoliticalcommunication,ISSN 1062–5623) Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. ISBN0–275–95206–1(alk.paper).—ISBN0–275–95207–X(pbk. : alk.paper) 1. Politicalconsultants—UnitedStates. 2. Mediaconsultants— UnitedStates. 3. Publicrelationsandpolitics—UnitedStates. 4. Electioneering—UnitedStates. I. Title. II. Series. JK2281.F75 1997 659.2'9324'0973—dc21 97–14471 BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationDataisavailable. Copyright(cid:1)1997byRobertV.Friedenberg Allrightsreserved.Noportionofthisbookmaybe reproduced,byanyprocessortechnique,withoutthe expresswrittenconsentofthepublisher. LibraryofCongressCatalogCardNumber:97–14471 ISBN:0–275–95206–1 0–275–95207–X(pbk.) ISSN:1062–5623 Firstpublishedin1997 PraegerPublishers,88PostRoadWest,Westport,CT06881 AnimprintofGreenwoodPublishingGroup,Inc. PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica TM Thepaperusedinthisbookcomplieswiththe PermanentPaperStandardissuedbytheNational InformationStandardsOrganization(Z39.48–1984). 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Contents Series Foreword vii Robert E. Denton, Jr. Acknowledgments xi 1. A History of Political Consulting in America 1 2. Polling Consultants: The Intelligence Service of the Ballot Box Wars 31 3. Speech and Debate Consultants: The Infantry of the Ballot Box Wars 69 4. Narrowcast Media Consultants: The Submarine Service of the Ballot Bax Wars 95 5. Newspaper and Radio Consultants: The Artillery Corps of the Ballot Box Wars 127 6. Television Consultants: The Air Force of the Ballot Box Wars 153 7. The Future of Political Consulting: Tomorrow’s Battlefields 199 Additional Readings 213 Index 215 Series Foreword Those of us from the discipline of communication studies have long be- lievedthatcommunicationispriortoallotherfieldsofinquiry.Inseveral otherforumsIhavearguedthattheessenceofpoliticsis‘‘talk’’orhuman interaction.1 Such interaction may be formal or informal, verbal or non- verbal, public or private, but it is always persuasive, forcing us con- sciously or subconsciously to interpret, to evaluate, and to act. Communication is the vehicle for human action. Fromthisperspective,itisnotsurprisingthatAristotlerecognizedthe naturalkinshipofpoliticsandcommunicationinhiswritingsPoliticsand Rhetoric. In the former, he establishes that humans are ‘‘political beings [who]aloneoftheanimals[are]furnishedwiththefacultyoflanguage.’’2 And in the latter, he begins his systematic analysis of discourse by pro- claiming that ‘‘rhetorical study, in its strict sense, is concerned with the modesofpersuasion.’’3Thus,itwasrecognizedover2,300yearsagothat politics and communication go hand in hand because they are essential parts of human nature. Backin1981,DanNimmoandKeithSandersproclaimedthatpolitical communication was an emerging field.4 Although its origin, as noted, dates back centuries, a ‘‘self-consciously cross-disciplinary’’focusbegan in the late 1950s. Thousands of books and articles later, colleges and universities offer a variety of graduate and undergraduate coursework in the area in such diverse departments as communication, mass com- munication, journalism, political science, and sociology.5 In Nimmo and Sanders’s early assessment, the ‘‘key areas of inquiry’’ included rhetor- ical analysis, propaganda analysis, attitude change studies, voting stud- ies,governmentandthenewsmedia,functionalandsystemsanalyses,tech- viii SERIESFOREWORD nological changes, media technologies, campaign techniques, and research techniques.6 In a survey of the state of the field in 1983, the same authors and Lynda Kaid found additional, more specific areas of concern such as the presidency, political polls, public opinion, debates, and advertising, to name a few.7 Since the first study, they also noted a shift away from the rather strict behavioral approach. Adecadelater,DanNimmoandDavidSwansonarguedthat‘‘political communication has developed some identity as a more or less distinct domain of scholarly work.’’8 The scope and concerns of the area have further expanded to include critical theories and cultural studies. While there is no precise definition, method, or disciplinary home of the area of inquiry, its primary domain is the role, processes, and effectsofcom- munication within the context of politics broadly defined. In1985,theeditorsofPoliticalCommunicationYearbook:1984notedthat ‘‘more things are happening in the study, teaching, and practice of po- litical communication than can be captured within the space limitations of the relatively few publications available.’’9 In addition, they argued that the backgrounds of ‘‘those involved in the field [are] so varied and pluralistinoutlookandapproach,...it[is]amistaketoadhereslavishly to any set format in shaping the content.’’10 And more recently, Nimmo andSwansoncalledfor‘‘waysofovercomingtheunhappyconsequences offragmentationwithinaframeworkthatrespects,encourages,andben- efits from diverse scholarly commitments, agendas, and approaches.11 In agreement with these assessments of the area and with gentle en- couragement, Praeger established the Praeger Series in Political Com- munication. The series is open to all qualitative and quantitative methodologies as well as contemporary and historical studies. The key to characterizing the studies in the series is the focus on communication variables or activities within a political context or dimension. As of this writing,nearly40volumeshavebeenpublished,andtherearenumerous impressive works forthcoming. Scholars from the disciplines of com- munication,history,journalism,politicalscience,andsociologyhavepar- ticipated in the series. Iam,withoutshameormodesty,afanoftheseries.Thejoyofserving as its editor is in participating in the dialogue of the field of political communication and in reading the contributors’ works. I invite you to join me. Robert E. Denton, Jr. NOTES 1. SeeRobertE.Denton,Jr.,TheSymbolicDimensionsoftheAmericanPresidency (Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press, 1982); Robert E. Denton, Jr., and Gary Woodward, Political Communication in America (New York: Praeger, 1985; 2nd SERIESFOREWORD ix ed., 1990); Robert E. Denton, Jr., and DanHan,PresidentialCommunication(New York:Praeger,1986);andRobertE.Denton,Jr.,ThePrimetimePresidencyofRonald Reagan (New York: Praeger, 1988). 2. Aristotle, The Politics of Aristotle, trans. Ernest Barker (New York: Oxford UniversityPress, 1970), p. 5. 3. Aristotle, Rhetoric, trans. Rhys Roberts (New York: The Modern Library, 1954), p. 22. 4. DanNimmoandKeithSanders,‘‘Introduction:TheEmergenceofPolitical Communication as a Field,’’ in Handbook of Political Communication, ed. Dan Nimmoand KeithSanders(BeverlyHills, Calif.: Sage, 1981), pp. 11–36. 5. Ibid., p. 15. 6. Ibid., pp. 17–27. 7. KeithSanders,LyndaKaid,andDanNimmo,eds.,PoliticalCommunication Yearbook:1984 (Carbondale:SouthernIllinoisUniversity,1985), pp. 283–308. 8. Dan Nimmo and DavidSwanson,‘‘TheFieldofPoliticalCommunication: Beyond the Voter Persuasion Paradigm,’’ in New Directions in Political Commu- nication, ed. David Swanson and Dan Nimmo (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage,1990), p. 8. 9. Sanders, Kaid, and Nimmo,PoliticalCommunicationYearbook:1984, p. xiv. 10. Ibid. 11. Nimmoand Swanson,‘‘The Field of PoliticalCommunication,’’p. 11.