COLONIAL GARD~J~ PLANTS I Flowers Before 1700 The following plants are listed according to the names most commonly used during the colonial period. The botanical name follows for accurate identification. The common name was listed first because many of the people using these lists will have access to or be familiar with that name rather than the botanical name. The botanical names are according to Bailey’s Hortus Second and The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture (3, 4). They are not the botanical names used during the colonial period for many of them have changed drastically. We have been very cautious concerning the interpretation of names to see that accuracy is maintained. By using several references spanning almost two hundred years (1, 3, 32, 35) we were able to interpret accurately the names of certain plants. For example, in the earliest works (32, 35), Lark’s Heel is used for Larkspur, also Delphinium. Then in later works the name Larkspur appears with the former in parenthesis. Similarly, the name "Emanies" appears frequently in the earliest books. Finally, one of them (35) lists the name Anemones as a synonym. Some of the names are amusing: "Issop" for Hyssop, "Pum- pions" for Pumpkins, "Mushmillions" for Muskmellons, "Isquou- terquashes" for Squashes, "Cowslips" for Primroses, "Daffadown dillies" for Daffodils. Other names are confusing. Bachelors Button was the name used for Gomphrena globosa, not for Centaurea cyanis as we use it today. Similarly, in the earliest literature, "Marygold" was used for Calendula. Later we begin to see "Pot Marygold" and "Calen- dula" for Calendula, and "Marygold" is reserved for Marigolds. The name "Cowslips" for Primroses can be confusing for in some parts of the world that is the name used for "Marsh Marigolds", Caltha palustris. "Winterberry" was a name commonly used for Chinese Lan- 172 173 terns (a modern common name), and "Alkekengi" was also used for this plant. But one must be careful in reviewing the litera- ture because Ilex verticillata and Ilex glabra might also be called Winterberry. "Gilliflowers" is a name used for Dianthus and Stock, but there was also an apple by this name. In parts of Virginia, the name "Ivy" is used in reference to Mountain Laurel, Kalmia latifolia ( 5 ). Jefferson used the name "Puckoon" to refer to Bloodroot, or Sanguinaria canadensis (5). In some parts of Connecticut, the name "Ox-eye Daisy" was and is used for Black-eyed Susan, Rudbeckia hirta, but in most places "Ox-eye Daisy" refers to Chrysanthemum leucanthemum. In a village within a town in Connecticut, Daylilies (Hemerocallis fulva) are called Wash-House Lilies, not Daylilies. Unfortunately these common names were used freely, perhaps more so than the botanical names, such as they were. For this reason, the "unraveling" of lists in old books and the compila- tion and documentation of new lists becomes necessary. Wherever possible we have worked from primary sources. Where these were not available, we have used reliable secondary sources. The numbers in parentheses after each plant refer to the references in the bibliography from which they were derived. These lists have not been presented as complete and final compilations. We consider that an entire lifetime could be de- voted to documenting the plants of the colonial period and then the list would not be complete. The reader should be aware that most of the early gardeners who kept notes or wrote books were either wealthy or experi- menters in the field of horticulture. For this reason, many of the species that seem unusual today were probably unusual then and for that reason should be used with restraint. Also, other plants may not have been used freely. Barberry, which was once com- monly grown, was outlawed in Massachusetts in 1754 because it was suspected as an alternate host for wheat rust (2). Furthermore, plants such as Kalmia latifolia, Mountain Laurel, were detested by farmers because they were poisonous to live- stock (36). Some readers will be disappointed that varieties of fruits and vegetables are not listed. This was not within the scope of this article. Such listings may be found in numerous books on garden and fruit culture, one early one being McMahon’s Garden Calendar by Bernard McMahon, published in Phila- delphia in 1806. For the period this book had a large printing and is available in most horticultural libraries. The Worcester County Horticultural Society also has a list of available varieties ( 44 ) from their experimental orchard. 174 Aconitum, Wolfsbane (21, 32, 35) Aconitum napellus L. Native of Germany, France and Switzerland. Cultivated in England in 1596 by Gerarde. Cultivated for its showy blue- purple flowers and the medicinal properties of its poisonous roots. Winter Aconite (32) Eranthus hymalis (L.) Salisb. Native of Italy, Silesia, and Switzerland. Cultivated in Eng- land in 1596 by Gerarde. Desired for its yellow flowers in early spring. Alkekengi, Winterberry (21, 32) Physalis alkekengi L. Native from southern Europe to Japan, but now adventive or naturalized in many parts of the world. Cultivated in England at least by 1597. Originally grown for the fruits which were used medicinally. More recently the fruits with their inflated orange calyces have been used in winter bouquets. Amaranthus, Flower Gentle, Joseph’s Amaranthus tricolor L. Coat, Tricolor (32, 35) Found throughout the tropics, probably native in Asia. Culti- vated by Gerarde in 1596. "The chiefest beauty of this plant consisteth in the leaves and not in the flowers; for they are small tufts growing all along the stalk, ... every leaf is to be seen parted into green, red, and yellow, very orient and fresh..." (31 ). --Amaranthus, Great Flower Amaranthus caudatus L. Gentle, Love-Lies-Bleeding (32, 35) Native in the tropics. Cultivated by James Sutherland in 1683. "... the flowers stand at the toppes of the stalke and branches more spread at the bottome into sundry parts, the middle being longest, and usually when it is in the perfection hanging down like a tassell of a more excellent scarlet ... red colour ..." (33). Anemone, Windflower (32), Anemone coronaria L. Emanies (35) Anemone hortensis L. Native of southern Europe and the Mediterranean region. Cultivated in England in 1596, according to Gerarde, for their showy flowers. Armeria, Sweet John, Dianthus barbatus L. Sweet William (32, 35) Native in Europe and Asia, south to the Pyrennees. Culti- vated by Gerarde in 1596. "... the common Sweet William ... has long been cultivated in the Gardens for Ornament, of which there are now great Varieties which differ in the Form and Colour of their Flowers, as also in the Size and Shape of their Leaves; those which have narrow Leaves were formerly titled Sweet Johns by the Gardeners, and those with broad Leaves were called Sweet Williams..." (30). 175 Asphodell (21, 32) Asphodelus albus Miller Asphodeline luteus L. Both are native of the Mediterranean region and were known to Parkinson in 1640 (33). Aster, Starwort (32) Aster tradescantii L. Aster amellus L. Aster tradescantii L. is a North American plant cultivated by the younger Tradescant as early as 1656. Aster amellus L. is native in southern Europe and Asia. Cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. Balsam (32, 35) Impatiens balsamina L. Native in Southeast Asia. Parkinson grew it by 1629 from seeds sent from Italy, and Gerarde had it in 1596. "... the Japanese use the juice prepared with alum, for dying their nails red ..." (31 ). There is also a European species with small flowers which was early confused with our native Impatiens capensis Meurburgh. Bachelor’s Button (26). Gomphrena globosa L. ’ Centaurea cyanus L. According to P. Miller this name was applied to Gomphrena globosa. "... by the Inhabitants of America ..." (30). Centaurea cyanus "... is called Bachelor’s Buttons in York- shire & Derbyshire, but this name is given to many other flowers..." (30) as, for example, double flowered forms of Achillea ptarmica L. Beare’s Ears (32) See Primrose - Bellflower (21, 32, 35) the Great Campanula pyramidalis L. Steeple, or Chimney Bellflower. Native of Southern Europe. Cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. "... This plant is cultivated to adorn Halls and to place be- fore the Chimnies in the Summer ..." (30). --Peach-leaved Bellflower Campanula persicifolia L. Native of Eurasia. Cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. "... of this there are the following varieties, viz. the single blue, and white Flower, which have been long here; the double Flower of both Colours, which have not been more than twenty Years in England, but have been propagated in such Plenty, as to have almost banished those with single Flowers from the Gardens. ..." (30). --Great Bellflower, Great or Campanula trachelium L. Nettle-leaved Throatwort, Canterbury Bells. Native in Europe. "... The Varieties of this are, the deep and pale blue; the white with single Flowers, and the same Colours with double Flowers ... those with single Flowers do not merit a Place in Gardens ..." (30). 176 --Creeping Campanula Campanula rapunculoides L. Native in Europe and Asia Minor. Resembling C. trachelium. Cultivated in 1683 by James Southerland. "... Sometimes grown in Gardens, where it speedily becomes a weed" (7). Blew Bindweed, Convolvulus ( 32, 35 ) Ipomoea nil (L.) Roth Native of the Old World Tropics, but now widely distributed. There are many forms in cultivation - such as cv. ’Scarlet O’Hara’. "... It was cultivated before 1596 by Gerarde, ... but perished before it ripened its seeds ... This species is now rarely met with in our gardens ..." (31 ). Bloodroot (22) Sanguinaria canadensis L. Native in eastern North America. "... Cultivated in Eng- land in 1680 by Mr. William Walker ... in St. James Street not far from St. James Palace ..." (31). "This strange Cel- andine hath a fleshie roote, full of a yellow juyce, smelling strong like the ordinary, from whence rise onely three large blewish greene leaves, cut in after the manner of Vine leaves, without any foote stalke under them, or with very short ones, from among which rise a short reddish foote stalke, with a white flower on the toppe of it like unto the flower of Sow- bread...." (33). Calendula (22, 32, 35, 40) Calendula officinalis L. Pot Marigold. "... Native of France, in the vineyards of Italy, in the corn fields of Silesia, in orchards, gardens, and fields; flowering most part of the summer. Parkinson informs us that he received the seed of the single Marigold from Spain, where it grows wild, ’by Guillaum Boel, in his time a very curious and cunning searcher of simples.’ It was however cultivated by Gerarde in 1597, and probably much earlier.... It has ... been cultivated time out of mind in kitchen gardens for the flowers, which were dried in order to be boiled in broth: from a fancy that they are comforters of the heart and spirits. According to the observation of Linnaeus, the flowers are ... open from nine in the morning to three in the afternoon. This regular expansion and closing of the flowers attracted early notice, and hence this plant acquired the name of Solsequia and Solis sponsa. There is an allusion to this property in ... Shakespeare - ’The Marigold, that goes to bed wi’ th’ sun And with him rises weeping,’ Golds or Gouldes is a name among the country people not ... only for this, but for Chrysanthemum segatum, any sort of Hawkweed, and in short for most yellow flowers of the syngene- sia class.... The varieties are supposed to have been origin- ally obtained from the seeds of the single sort, but most of these differences continue, if the seeds are properly saved; but the two childing [bearing additional small heads around the base of the main head] Marigolds, and the largest double, are subject to degenerate, where care is not taken in saving their No. 1-5 Amaranthus cvs. No. 6, 7 Heliochrysum spp. No. 9 Anten- naria. From Paradisi in Sole by John Parkinson. London, 1629. 178 seeds. The best way to preserve the varieties, is to pull up all those plants, whose flowers are less double, as soon as they appear, and to save the seeds from the largest and most double flowers; the childing sort should be sown by itself in a separate part of the garden, and the seeds saved from the large centre flowers only, ..." (31). Campanula - see Bellflower Canterbury Bells (32, 35) In the time of Parkinson (the 1600’s) this referred to Campanula trachelium L. (see Bellflower). C. medium L. which we know as Canterbury Bells was at this time called Coventry Bells. "Doubles" at this time almost surely referred to the double-flowered forms of C. trachelium, since double-flow- ered forms of C. medium were not common even in 1800. Candytuft, Purple Candytuft (21, 35) Iberis umbellata L. Native of southern Europe. This seems to have been the commonly cultivated Candytuft of this period. It was grown by Gerarde in 1596, and was given nearly a page in Parkinson’s Paradisus (32). ... Cardinal Flower (21, 32) Lobelia cardinalis L. Parkinson grew it in 1629. "... grows naturally by the Side of Rivers and Ditches in great Part of North America, but has been many Years cultivated in the European Gardens for the great Beauty of its scarlet Flowers ..." (29). Centaury (21, 32, 35) Centaurea centaurium L. Native in Spain and Italy. Cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. "... stands in the List of medicinal Plants of the College, but is very rarely used; the Root is reckoned to be binding, and good for all Kinds of Fluxes, and of great use to heal Wounds. ..." (30). Centaurea - See Centaury or Cornflower Celandine Poppy, Common or Chelidonium majus L. Great Celandine (22) Native in Europe and northern Asia. "... flowering from may to july, during which time it is in the greatest perfection for use.... The juice of every part of this plant is very acri- monius. It cures tetters [Herpes] and ringworms. Diluted with milk it consumes white opaque spots on the eyes. It de- stroys warts, and cures the itch. There is no doubt but a medicine of such activity will one day be converted to more important purposes ..." (31). Chequered Lily (32, 35) Fritillaria meleagris L. Native in most of Europe. "... Gerarde calls it Turkey-hen or Guinea-hen flower, and Checkered Daffodill. The curious and painful herborist of Paris, John Robin, sent him many plants for his garden where they prospered (as he informs us) as in their 179 own native country.... Some call it, says Parkinson, Nar- cissus Caparonius from the first finder Noel Caparon, an Apothe- cary then dwelling at Orleans, but shortly after murdered in the massacre of France ... The country people about Rislip call the flowers Snake-heads...." (31). Chinese Lantern - See Alkekengi Clove-Gilliflower Dianthus caryophyllus L. (21,26,32,34,35,40) Native from southern Europe to India. "... grow like unto the Carnations, but not so thick set with joynts and leaves: ... the flowers are smaller, yet very thick and double in most ..." (32). Parkinson described 29 varieties. Colchicum, Meadow Saffron Colchicum autumnale L. (21, 32, 33). Native in Central and Southeastern Europe. "... Mr. Miller observed it in England in great plenty, in the meadows near Castle-Bromwich in Warwickshire, the beginning of September; and says that the country people call the flowers Naked Ladies, because they come up without any leaves (They give the same name to Hepatica, and indifferently to any plant, which has flowers on naked scapes, appearing at a different time from the leaves.) ..." (31). Parkinson described a double flowered variety (32). Columbine (21, 32) Aquilegia vulgaris L. Temperate Europe and Asia. "There are many sorts of Colum- bine as well differing in forme as colour of the flowers, and of them both single and double carefully nursed up in our Gar- dens, for the delight both of their forme and colours...." (32). "... The root, the herb, the flowers, the seeds have been recommended to be used medicinally, on good authority; but this plant is of a suspicious tribe, and Linnaeus affirms as of his own knowledge, that children have lost their lives by an over dose of it. The virtues ascribed to a tincture of the flowers, as an anti-phlogistic, and for strengthening the gums, and deterg- ing [cleansing] scorbutic ulcers in the mouth, appear to be better founded; the tincture being made with an addition of the vitriolic acid [sulphuric acid], and differing little from our official tincture of roses ..." (31 ). Cornflower, Blew Bottle, Centaurea cyanus L. Corn Centaury (21, 32, 35) Native in most of Europe. "... It is a common weed among corn [grain], flowering from june to august, the wild flower is usually blue, but sometimes white or purple.... Dr. Stokes informs us, that it is called Bachelor’s-buttons in Yorkshire and Derbyshire: but this is a name given to many other flowers. In Scotland it is called Blue Bonnetts.... The expressed juice of the neutral florets makes a good ink; it also stains linen of a beautiful blue, but the colour is not permanent in any mode 180 hitherto used. Mr. Boyle says that the juice of the central florets, with the addition of a very small quantity of alum, makes a last- ing transparent blue, not inferior to ultramarine...." (31). Crocus (21, 32, 35, 40) Crocus vernus (L.) All. (C. purpureus Weston) Native of the mountains of southern and central Europe. Parkinson listed some 29 garden varieties (32). Crown Imperial (21, 32, 35) Fritillaria imperialis L. Native from Iran to the Himalayas. "... This grows natur- ally in Persia, from whence it was first brought to Constantin- ople, and about the Year 1570, was introduced to these Parts of Europe, ..." (30). "... Gerarde had great plenty of it in his garden in 1596, he calls it a rare and strange plant. Parkin- son (in 1629) had not observed any variety in the colour of the flowers. Lobel, however, enumerated many varieties...." (31). It is worth noting that by the time of Miller ( 1759 ) at least twelve garden forms had been recognized. Daffodill (21, 26, 35), Daffadown Dillies, Narcissus sp. Trumpets, Poets, Doubles, Multiples --Common Jonquil Narcissus jonquilla L. Cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. Native in southern Europe and Algeria. --Curtis Primrose Peerless Narcissus X biflorus Curtis Narcissus. Pale Daffodil Probably a hybrid between N. poeticus and N. tazetta. --Poetic, Poets, or White Narcissus, Narcissus poeticus L. Pheasant’s Eye Native of southern Europe. Cultivated in England by 1570 according to L’Obel. --Polyanthus Narcissus Narcissus tazetta L. Gerarde grew it in 1596. Native from the Canary Islands to Japan. "... Clusius observed it at the end of january 1565 in Spain and Portugal and at the begining of february at Gibraltar ..." (31). --Rush-Leaved Daffodil, Narcissus triandrus L. Angels-Tears "... Clusius says that a French herbarist, namer Nicolas le Quelt or Quilt, who searched the Pyrenees and Spain every year, introduced it in 1599 ..." (31). --Sweet-scented Narcissus, Narcissus odorus L. Campernelle Jonquil (N. Calathinus L.) Native in France and Spain. "... Clusius first observed them in flower in april 1595, in the garden of Theodoric Clutius or Cluyts, prefect of the Academic Garden at Leyden ..." (31 ). 181 --Wild or Common Daffodil Narcissus pseudonarcissus L. Native in western Europe from Belgium to Portugal, natural- ized in Scandinavia and central Europe. Parkinson (32) listed many varieties, several of them double. This is the common wild English Daffodil. Daisy. Great Daisy Chrysanthemum leucanthemum L. ( 21, 26, 34 ) , Common Oxe-Eye Native throughout Europe. A common weed of fields. A double flowered form was known to Parkinson. --Perennial or Common Daisy Bellis perennis L. Native over much of Europe. "... the common Daisy, grows naturally in Pasture Land in most Parts of Europe, ... and is often a troublesome Weed in the Grass of Gardens, so is never cultivated.... The Garden Daisy is generally supposed to be only a Variety of the wild Sort, which was first obtained by Culture. This may probably be true, but there has not been any Instance of late Years of the wild Sort, having been altered by Culture; for I have kept this wild Sort in the Garden upward of thirty Years, and have constantly parted the Roots, and raised many Plants from Seeds, but they have constantly re- mained the same; nor have I ever observed the Garden Daisy to degenerate to the wild Sort, where they have been some Years neglected, though they have altered greatly with regard to the Size and Beauty of their Flowers...." (30). Datura - See Thomapple Daylily (40), Hemerocallis lilio-asphodelus L. Yellow Asphodel Lily, emend. Hylander (H. flava L.) Liriconfancie, Yellow Day Lily --Red Asphodel Lily, Hemerocallis fulva L. Orange Day Lily Hemerocallis lilio-asphodelus L. is a native of Eastern Asia, H. fulva is known only in cultivation. "... These Lilies, says Gerarde, do grow in my garden, and in the gardens of herbarists and lovers of fine and rare plants ..." (12). Parkinson and Miller both note that while H. fulva sets no seed, and the flowers last for but a single day, H. lilio-asphodelus does set seed and the individual flowers last for more than one day. Miller further notes of the seeds of H. lilio-asphodelus that "... if sown in Autumn, the Plants will come up the following Spring, and these will flower in two Years; but if the Seeds are not sown till Spring, the plants will not come up till the year after...." (30). We now know that H. fulva is a triploid, and hence sterile, and that it is not known in a wild condition - though allied diploids are found in China. Dead Nettle (32), Lamium purpureum L. Red or Purple Dead Nettle or Archangell.