COLLEGE STUDENT RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION AND SPIRITUAL IDENTITY: A QUALITATIVE STUDY by Jenny L. Small A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Education) in The University of Michigan 2008 Doctoral Committee: Professor Edward P. St. John, Chair Associate Professor Lesley A. Rex Adjunct Associate Professor David Schoem Clinical Professor John C. Burkhardt © Jenny L. Small All rights reserved 2008 Dedication To Josh, for constant support And To Sophie, for constant inspiration ii Acknowledgments I would like to thank the following people who helped to make this dissertation possible. Each one contributed in a valuable way. Thank you to the clergy and advisors who reviewed my protocol, to ensure cultural sensitivity: Reverend Susan F. Sprowls, Lord of Light Lutheran Church; Rabbi Nathan Martin, University of Michigan Hillel Foundation; and Michael Olrogge, undergraduate contact for Unitarian Universalist Campus Ministry (UUSRL). In addition, I am grateful to the many other clergy and student leaders who helped me to reach out to potential participants for the study. Thank you to the three graduate students who co-facilitated focus groups with me, to ensure my understanding of diverse religions: Julie DeGraw, CSHPE; Ethan Stephenson, CSHPE; and N’Mah Yilla, Modern Middle Eastern and North African Studies. Thank you to the Rackham Graduate School at the University of Michigan, which provided me with a research grant to cover the costs of this project. Thank you to the members of my “dissertation support group,” who have been my friends since we started together in CSHPE: Allison Bell, Danielle Molina, Ethan Stephenson, and Janel Sutkus. Thank you to the members of my committee, each of whom has given me support, advice and encouragement throughout my time as a doctoral student and particularly iii during the dissertation phase: Edward St. John, CSHPE; John Burkhardt, CSHPE; Lesley Rex, Joint Program in English and Education; and David Schoem, Sociology. Finally, thank you to the 21 students who participated in this study, and who openly shared their insights, viewpoints, and deepest of beliefs. iv Table of Contents Dedication ....................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................... iii List of Tables ................................................................................................................... x List of Figures ................................................................................................................ xi List of Appendices ......................................................................................................... xii Abstract ........................................................................................................................ xiii Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................... 1 Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................. 3 History of College Student Religious Involvement .................................................... 6 Religion and Spiritual Identity in Higher Education ................................................... 9 Study Design ............................................................................................................... 17 Research Questions ................................................................................................... 19 Scope ......................................................................................................................... 20 Limitations ................................................................................................................ 20 Definitions ................................................................................................................. 22 Overview of the Study............................................................................................... 24 Chapter 2: Review of the Literature .............................................................................. 26 College Student Development Theory ........................................................................ 26 Moral Development Theory ........................................................................................ 27 Lawrence Kohlberg ................................................................................................... 27 Faith Development Theory .......................................................................................... 32 James W. Fowler ....................................................................................................... 32 Sharon Daloz Parks ................................................................................................... 43 Religious Identity Development Theories................................................................. 46 Chapter 3: Conceptual Framework ................................................................................ 51 Analysis ....................................................................................................................... 51 v Faith Development Theory and Christians................................................................ 54 Faith Development Theory and Jews ........................................................................ 58 Faith Development Theory and Muslims .................................................................. 65 Faith Development Theory and Atheists ................................................................... 71 Complements and Contrasts between Faith Development Theory and all Considered Religions ............................................................................................................... 76 Faith Development Trajectory for Christianity ......................................................... 76 Faith Development Trajectories for Non-Christians ................................................. 81 Proposed Modifications to Faith Development Theory ............................................ 86 Reconstructed Conceptual Framework ........................................................................ 95 Chapter 4: Research Methods ...................................................................................... 103 Context ...................................................................................................................... 104 Data Collection .......................................................................................................... 106 Participant Recruitment and Selection .................................................................... 106 Focus Groups........................................................................................................... 109 Follow Up Writings ................................................................................................. 114 Interviews ................................................................................................................ 115 Methodology .............................................................................................................. 117 Qualitative Coding Analysis ................................................................................... 117 Discourse Analysis .................................................................................................. 119 Data Selection ............................................................................................................ 126 Triangulation ........................................................................................................... 128 Role of the Researcher ............................................................................................... 129 Trustworthiness ......................................................................................................... 134 Chapter 5: Analysis – Christian College Students ...................................................... 138 Results: Discourse Analysis ...................................................................................... 139 Segment 1 ................................................................................................................ 139 Segment 2 ................................................................................................................ 143 Segment 3 ................................................................................................................ 149 Post-Hoc Positioning and Face Saving ................................................................... 153 Discussion of Discourse Analysis ........................................................................... 154 vi Results: Qualitative Coding ....................................................................................... 156 Definitions and Aspects of “Religious” and “Spiritual” ......................................... 156 God Images and Associations ................................................................................. 157 Faith Influences, Faith Trajectories and Developmental Objectives ...................... 158 Learning from and Feelings about Focus Group Experience .................................. 171 Discussion of Qualitative Coding ........................................................................... 172 Summary .................................................................................................................... 174 Chapter 6: Analysis – Jewish College Students .......................................................... 178 Results: Discourse Analysis ...................................................................................... 179 Segment 1 ................................................................................................................ 179 Segment 2 ................................................................................................................ 184 Segment 3 ................................................................................................................ 187 Post-Hoc Positioning and Face Saving ................................................................... 193 Discussion of Discourse Analysis ........................................................................... 193 Results: Qualitative Coding ....................................................................................... 196 Definitions and Aspects of “Religious” and “Spiritual” ......................................... 196 God Images and Associations ................................................................................. 197 Faith Influences, Faith Trajectories and Developmental Objectives ...................... 198 Learning from and Feelings about Focus Group Experience .................................. 208 Discussion of Qualitative Coding ........................................................................... 209 Summary .................................................................................................................... 210 Chapter 7: Analysis – Muslim College Students ......................................................... 215 Results: Discourse Analysis ...................................................................................... 216 Segment 1 ................................................................................................................ 216 Segment 2 ................................................................................................................ 222 Segment 3 ................................................................................................................ 226 Post-Hoc Positioning and Face Saving ................................................................... 230 Discussion of Discourse Analysis ........................................................................... 231 Results: Qualitative Coding ....................................................................................... 233 Definitions and Aspects of “Religious” and “Spiritual” ......................................... 233 God Images and Associations ................................................................................. 234 vii Faith Influences, Faith Trajectories and Developmental Objectives ...................... 235 Learning from and Feelings about Focus Group Experience .................................. 245 Discussion of Qualitative Coding ........................................................................... 246 Summary .................................................................................................................... 249 Chapter 8: Analysis – Atheist College Students.......................................................... 252 Results: Discourse Analysis ...................................................................................... 253 Segment 1 ................................................................................................................ 253 Segment 2 ................................................................................................................ 258 Segment 3 ................................................................................................................ 263 Post-Hoc Positioning and Face Saving ................................................................... 268 Discussion of Discourse Analysis ........................................................................... 269 Results: Qualitative Coding ....................................................................................... 271 Definitions and Aspects of “Religious” and “Spiritual” ......................................... 271 God Images and Associations ................................................................................. 272 Faith Influences, Faith Trajectories and Developmental Objectives ...................... 273 Learning from and Feelings about Focus Group Experience .................................. 284 Discussion of Qualitative Coding ........................................................................... 285 Summary .................................................................................................................... 287 Chapter 9: Discussion .................................................................................................. 291 Cross-Cutting Themes and Similarities Between Religious Affiliations .................. 293 Perspectives on Christian Privilege and Societal Status ......................................... 293 Discrepancies between Students’ Talk and Their Meanings .................................. 295 Discourse Communities versus Familiar Communities .......................................... 296 Students Bridging Groups ....................................................................................... 297 Impact of College Environment on Religious and Spiritual Identities ................... 299 Unique Faith Frames ................................................................................................. 305 Conceptual Framework Revisited ............................................................................. 309 Locus of Authority .................................................................................................. 313 Level of Internal Struggle/Acceptance .................................................................... 314 Dogmatism/Ecumenism Trends .............................................................................. 314 Religious Marginalization Awareness Scale ........................................................... 315 viii Fluidity in Stage Correspondences .......................................................................... 316 Developmental Objectives ...................................................................................... 318 Summary of Modifications to Conceptual Framework ........................................... 320 Theory Triangulation............................................................................................... 327 Summary .................................................................................................................... 329 Chapter 10: Conclusion and Implications ................................................................... 332 Review of Purposes and Research Questions ............................................................ 332 Implications ............................................................................................................... 336 Morality/Equity ....................................................................................................... 337 Model Specification ................................................................................................ 341 Research in Higher Education ................................................................................. 343 Practice in Higher Education................................................................................... 348 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 353 Appendices .................................................................................................................. 355 References ................................................................................................................... 366 ix