Högskolan i Skövde School of Humanities and Informatics English Code-switching in Chinua Achebe‟s Novels Hanna Larsson English C-Course Autumn 2007 Tutor: Ingalill Söderqvist Table of contents 1. Introduction ........................................................................................ 2 2. Background ........................................................................................ 3 2.1. Code-switching ................................................................................................................ 3 2.2. Proverbs ........................................................................................................................... 4 2.3. Pidgin Languages ............................................................................................................ 5 2.4. Nigerian Pidgin English .................................................................................................. 6 2.4.1. Tense ........................................................................................................................ 7 2.4.2. Aspect ....................................................................................................................... 7 3. Method and material .......................................................................... 8 3.1. Semantic Code-switching ................................................................................................ 9 3.1.1. Igbo Lexicon ............................................................................................................ 9 3.1.2. Proverbs .................................................................................................................. 10 3.2. Syntactic Code-switching .............................................................................................. 10 4. Analysis and result ........................................................................... 12 4.1. The Igbo lexicon ............................................................................................................ 12 4.2. Proverbs ......................................................................................................................... 15 4.3. Nigerian Pidgin English ................................................................................................ 17 4.3.1. The present ............................................................................................................. 18 4.3.2. The past .................................................................................................................. 20 4.3.3. The future ............................................................................................................... 22 5. Summary and Conclusion ................................................................ 24 List of Works Cited ............................................................................. 27 Primary Sources ................................................................................................................... 27 Secondary Sources ............................................................................................................... 27 Appendices........................................................................................... 28 Appendix 1: List of Igbo vocabulary and their translations ................................................. 28 Appendix 2.1: proverbs - animal .......................................................................................... 30 Appendix 2.2: Proverbs – Family ........................................................................................ 32 Appendix 2.3: Proverbs – Homestead .................................................................................. 33 Appendix 2.4: Proverbs – people in general ........................................................................ 34 Appendix 2.5: Proverbs – Spirit ........................................................................................... 35 Appendix 2.6: Proverbs – Miscellaneous ............................................................................. 36 1 1. Introduction The aim of this essay is to point out how Chinua Achebe uses different features of Igbo and Nigerian Pidgin English (NPE) in four of his novels. Firstly, there will be an explanation of the terms code switching and proverb, followed by an overview of Pidgin Languages and Nigerian Pidgin English. This study will then deal with two aspects of code-switching in Achebe‟s novels: semantic, which includes intertwined Igbo vocabulary and proverbs; and syntactic, which is a study of Nigerian Pidgin English verb phrase constructions. The study will examine how the Igbo lexicon and proverbs function in the text and if/how it is possible to understand the meaning of the Igbo vocabulary. Further, it will examine how the verb constructions of the NPE dialogues are used and if they follow the norm set up by other linguists, or if Achebe alters their usage according to his own style. Chinua Achebe was one of the first African authors to write in English – and to defend his use of the English language. In his essay “The Role of the Writer in a New Nation”, included in the collection African Writers on African Writing, he says: For an African, writing in English is not without its serious setbacks. He often finds himself describing situations or modes of thought, which have no direct equivalent in the English way of life. Caught in that situation he can do one of two things. He can try and contain what he wants to say within the limits of conventional English or try to push back those limits to accommodate his ideas. The first method produces competent, uninspired and rather flat work. The second method can produce something new and valuable to the English language as well as to the new material he is trying to put over. But it can also get out of hand. It can lead to bad English being accepted and defended as African or Nigerian. I submit that those who can do the work of extending the frontiers of English so as to accommodate African thought-patterns must do it through their mastery of English and not out of innocence. (12) By including many Igbo words, proverbs, folktales and the rhythm of the Igbo language, he shows his readers his world from a different point of view; not the view of the English, but of the Igbo people he portrays. 2 2. Background 2.1. Code-switching ”Code-switching (CS) can be defined as the use of two or more languages in the same conversation or utterance” (Gardner-Chloros 361). It is a common phenomenon in many parts of the world where much immigration or colonisation has taken place, and the population is bi- or multilingual. A few examples of code-switching could be: - Speakers of Marathi, an Indo-Aryan language spoken in central India, insert many Sanskrit words into their speech in formal settings, but not in the market place. - A Sicilian fishmonger addresses a customer in the local dialect. He switches to Italian in answering the customer‟s questions, but then switches back to the dialect, while the customer continues speaking Italian. - A Kikuyu speaker in a middle-class Nairobi home speaks Swahili to her children most of the time, but Kikuyu to tell them off. The children, too, speak mostly Swahili garnished with a lot of English insertions. (Examples from Coulmas 112) To people observing from the outside, the alternation back and forth with portions of different languages may be very difficult to understand, since many have problems recognising a pattern. This may lead to the assumption that the speakers who code-switch do this because they simply cannot master their language use. However, Coulmas thinks otherwise: It is not necessarily for lack of competency that speakers switch from one language to another, and the choices they make are not fortuitous. Rather, just like socially motivated choices of varieties of one language, choices across language boundaries are imbued with social meaning. (109) Coulmas goes on to say that the people who code-switch are very aware of the difference in language or variety and that they are able to keep them apart. They may not, however, do so habitually and they are not always aware that they do switch, even though code-switching is regarded as a controllable strategy (110). Gardner-Chloros mentions different sub-categories of code-switching, namely situational and conversational CS; 3 Situational CS could be regarded as changes in language choice rather than CS proper; it refers to language switches which coincide with a change of interlocutor, setting or topic. Conversational CS, which many authors now would regard as CS proper, does not necessarily coincide with any such changes but is motivated by factors within the conversation itself. (361) As mentioned above, it can be very difficult for outside observers to understand people who code-switch, but, according to Coulmas, “code-switching must be rule-governed” (114), and “it must be possible to determine the rules that speakers apply in code-switching” (114). These rules will not be discussed here. However, according to Coulmas, there is always a matrix language. This matrix language provides the “system morphemes” for the base or frame of the language, whereas other “content morphemes” can be inserted from whichever language (117). A morpheme is the smallest unit of text which carries meaning, either grammatically or lexically. System morphemes and content morphemes can be compared to what are generally known as bound and free morphemes. Free morphemes, or content morphemes, are the morphemes that can stand alone and still mean something, like “child”. The morpheme cannot be split up any further, but bound morphemes can be added. Bound morphemes, or system morphemes, are the prefixes and suffixes added to change the free morpheme, which is also known as the root or the stem. These bound morphemes cannot stand by themselves, but must be added to the root, making it for instance “children”. Here, the suffix –ren changed the form of the root from a singular to a plural. Suffixes can also add possessive meaning, “the children‟s”, and so on. 2.2. Proverbs Proverbs are a very important part of the Igbo oral tradition, which in turn is extremely important to the Igbo people: The oral tradition is very important to the Igbo in particular, and the Africans in general because their behaviours, thought, language and rhetoric are molded and shaped by their tradition. Similarly, their creative imagination, history, medicine, technology and philosophy were orally passed down to different generation [sic] through various forms of oral performance. The writer‟s 4 experiences and world-views are nurtured by this tradition in spite of the language of expression. (Igboanusi 8) The word proverb is defined by the Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary to be: “a short sentence, etc., usually known by many people, stating something commonly experienced or giving advice” (1017). Christina Alm-Arvius defines it structurally by saying that it consists of a whole lexicalised main clause (23). Proverbs are extremely important to the Igbo people. They constitute the most important form of Igbo narrative custom. Achebe himself describes them in his novel Things Fall Apart as “the palm oil with which words are eaten” (6), which is a very striking metaphor, since there are almost no Igbo meals cooked without palm oil, “just as there is hardly any good Igbo speech that is not interlaced with proverbs” (Ogbaa 108-109). Since they are so important, part of the chapter about semantic code-switching will look into the proverbs of the novel Arrow of God. 2.3. Pidgin Languages According to Crystal, ”[a] pidgin is a system of communication which has grown up among people who do not share a common language, but who want to talk to each other, for trading or other reasons” (336). Crystal goes on to say that pidgin languages are much more simple, grammatically, vocabulary-wise and function-wise, compared to the languages they arose from. They are not the first language of any people, but they still serve as a “main means of communication for millions of people” (336). Crystal also says that many pidgins are based on European languages – English, French, Spanish, Dutch and Portuguese – (336), which can also be called a superstrate language or, as Coulmas says, a matrix language. As mentioned in the chapter about code-switching, the matrix language provides the frame for the pidgin language, whereas other morphemes can be inserted from any other language (Coulmas 117). The second language is known as a substrate language. Some pidgins, like Nigerian Pidgin English, are known as expanded pidgins because they have “added extra forms to cope with the needs of their users, and have come to be used in a much wider range of situations than previously” (Crystal 336). 5 2.4. Nigerian Pidgin English Nigerian Pidgin English (NPE) is, as the name suggests, an English-based pidgin language, functioning as a lingua franca throughout Nigeria. Thus, English is the superstrate language and the main substrate languages are Igbo, Yoruba and Hausa (answers.com). There have been many discussions whether NPE is really a pidgin language or already a Creole language, which is “a mother-tongue variety derived from a pidgin, i.e. the acquisition of native speakers by a language” (Melchers and Shaw 123). This discussion is relevant since many children learn NPE very early, and according to answers.com, NPE is the native language of approximately 3 to 5 million people. It is also the second language of at least 75 million more. According to Melchers and Shaw, Nigerian [Pidgin] English shares many features with the Englishes of the rest of Africa, especially West African Englishes; - [They have a] smaller vowel set than inner-circle varieties, compensated for by spelling pronunciations and nonreduction of vowels. Spelling pronunciations are normal and predominant. An example of how different the vowel patterns of African English can be, and yet how distinctiveness and redundancy are retained, Ebot (1999) cites Cameroon English purpose /pͻpͻs/, perpetrate, /pɛpɛtret/ compared with GA /pɜrpəs/, /pɜrpətreɪt/ or RP /pɜ:pəs/, /pɜ:pətreɪt/ where every vowel is different both in realization and systematically and yet both varieties have three different vowel phonemes in these two words. - Some vowel pronunciations [are] used as identity markers. In discussing NURSE, first realized as [nas] [fast], Schmied (1991) quoted Kenyans saying „I don‟t want to strain myself so much to say [fɜːst] only to sound British . . . This would seem snobbish to my colleagues‟. - Word stress [is] sometimes assigned according to local rules . . . as in West African indi’cate vs RP/GA ‘indicate perhaps because stress is attracted to certain types of strong syllable. - [There are plenty of] [f]igurative expressions based on the substrate languages. . . . . I have killed many moons in that hut from Zimbabwe. - In casual speech, [there are] long words which sound formal to inner-circle ears but do not necessarily have that value, since casual styles have had to be „reconstituted‟ from language learnt at school. (155) This essay will examine the verb phrase in NPE dialogues, more specifically tense and aspect. 6 2.4.1. Tense Elugbe and Omamor say: In terms of tense, NP[E] shows a three-way distinction illustrated by forms such as: (i) I de kọm „He comes/he is coming‟ (ii) I kọm „He came‟; and (iii) I go kọm „He will come‟. (99) Here, the form (i) is a form for present tense “with a specifically imperfective meaning” (100). It represents a continuous/progressive action or a habitual action depending on the context and the specific verb used. “(ii) is a simple past tense, while (iii) is a form indicating future tense” (100). This differs from Standard English, which only has two tenses, the present and the past, while the future is regarded as an aspect. However, since Elugbe and Omamor recognize three tenses in NPE, these are the tenses that will be analysed. 2.4.2. Aspect Elugbe and Omamor mention two “notions marked in NP[E]”, namely the imperfective and the perfective. The imperfective is also known as the progressive aspect, representing continuous or habitual action (100). Examples of the progressive in NPE are as follows: A de kọm „I am coming or I usually come‟. A go de kọm „I will be coming or I will continue/make a habit of coming‟ (100) “The perfective aspect in NP[E] is marked by the particle dọn which indicates completion, plus present relevance” (Elugbe and Omamor 100). Elugbe and Omamor say that NPE makes a distinction between a situation which has been begun before the “time of utterance”, as in A dọn de kọm „I have/had started coming‟ A go dọn de kọm „I will have started coming‟ (100) and a situation which has been completed as a whole before the “time of utterance”, as in A dọn kọm “I have come/arrived‟ A go dọn kọm „I will have come/arrived‟ (100) 7 These structures differ from Standard English (SE) in that they would not be regarded as the past, but as the present, since the verb “have” is in the present. In NPE, however, they express the past, and will therefore be discussed as past tense structures. This is also discussed by Agheyisi, who recognizes a difference in meaning whether the particle “don” is used prior to an action verbal or a stative verbal: “[b]efore stative verbals, it often implies a change in state, and may therefore be glossed as „have become‟; instead of the usual „have . . . en‟”(136). She illustrates her statement with a few examples. Action verbals: 185d. Tif don tek wi moni. A thief has taken our money. 186d. Jon don kom fo wi haos. John has come to our house. 187d. Jon don silip fo chie. John has slept on the chair Stative verbals: 188d. Meri don get plenty money. Mary has had much money; i.e. Mary has become rich. 189d. Dem don no se wi don go. They have known that we have gone. 190d. Di pikin don fain. The child has fine; i.e. The child has become fine. (136) A form not discussed by these three but fairly common in the novels examined is a sort of imperative construction. The function of an imperative is, according to Alm-Arvius, to give a command or request (28). In Achebe, these constructions take the main form of “make + infinitive”, as in “when you come for Monday make you bring am” (Anthills of the Savannah 119) or “[m]ake you shut your smelling mouth there, Mr. Lawyer” (Anthills of the Savannah 118). This form, with two slight alterations, will be discussed under the future tense. The reason for this is that the action proposed will have to be performed after the command or request is finished, placing it in the future. 3. Method and material The material first intended for this essay was all five of Chinua Achebe‟s novels. However, since the essay is split into two aspects of code-switching, it seemed more reasonable to 8 examine approximately the same number of pages for each part. Further, the use of different novels for different aspects of the research would give a fuller picture of the writing of Achebe, but I did not want to use the same novel for both fields of research. Thus, only four books were needed, and his second novel, No Longer at Ease, was excluded, since it contained the least material needed for this research. I have included all instances throughout the above selected novels, and have thus not excluded any pages of them. The material for the semantic part consists of a total of 379 pages, and for the semantic part there are 366 pages. 3.1. Semantic Code-switching This essay will examine the Igbo lexicon interwoven in the main text, as well as the proverbs used. These features are a way of “expanding the frontiers of English” for Achebe and many other African authors who choose to write in English. The study will examine whether Achebe really is able to “accommodate African thought-patterns” in his own novels, or if the use of Igbo vocabulary and foreign proverbs makes it incomprehensible. It will also examine how the proverbs are used, and if they seem to be as important as Igboanusi says they are. 3.1.1. Igbo Lexicon For the Igbo lexicon this study will be referring to Things Fall Apart. Things Fall Apart is the one of Achebe‟s novels most focused on Igbo life and society, and therefore it was a suitable choice for studying the lexicon. The analysis will firstly show how many instances of Igbo vocabulary were found in the text. It will also examine how the inserted Igbo words and phrases can be understood by a reader who does not speak Igbo. Only those Igbo words and utterances which are italicised in the main text have been included. An entire sentence, utterance, chant or poem in Igbo has been treated as one single instance. Quite a few of the words and/or utterances included occur more than once, and they have been counted again every time they occur. Thus, if a word occurs twice on the same page, it has been counted as two instances. However, if a word or sentence is chanted repeatedly without interruption, it is looked upon as one instance. An example of this is “It began by naming the clan: Umuofia obodo dike „the land of the brave.‟ Umuofia obodo dike! Umuofia obodo dike!” (88). The short interruption here, “the land of the brave”, is simply a translation and is thus looked upon as a repetition, not an actual interruption. Several sentences can also be looked upon as one instance, if they are uninterrupted. For example: “Agbala do-o-o-o! Agbala ekeneo-o-o! Chi negbu madu ubosi ndu ya nato y auto daluo-o-o! . . .” (79). 9