02_9780470878743-ftoc.indd viii 02_9780470878743-ftoc.indd viii 6/16/11 3:26 PM 6/16/11 3:26 PM CliffsNotes ® Anatomy & Physiology Quick Review By Phillip E. Pack, Ph.D., and Steven Bassett 2nd Edition 01_9780470878743-ffirs.indd i 01_9780470878743-ffirs.indd i 6/16/11 3:26 PM 6/16/11 3:26 PM About the Authors Phillip E. Pack has taught AP courses and gifted programs for 11 years. He is currently an assistant professor of Math and Science at Woodbury Uni- versity in Burbank, California. Steven Bassett has taught Anatomy and Physiol- ogy courses to undergraduates for over 21 years and Pathophysiology to physician assistants for 10 years. He has been at Southeast Community Col- lege in Lincoln, Nebraska since 1990. Authors’ Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Grace Freedson for bringing us this project. We also want to thank our families for their love and support. 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It was reported as “unsold and destroyed” to the publisher, and neither the author nor the publisher has received any payment for this “stripped book.” 01_9780470878743-ffirs.indd ii 01_9780470878743-ffirs.indd ii 6/16/11 3:26 PM 6/16/11 3:26 PM Table of Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Why You Need Th is Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 How to Use Th is Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Hundreds of Practice Questions Online! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Chapter 1: Anatomy and Chemistry basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 What Is Anatomy and Physiology? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Atoms, Molecules, Ions, and Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 Inorganic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 Organic Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 Chemical Reactions in Metabolic Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 Chapter 2: The Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Th e Cell and Its Membrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22 Cell Junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 Movement of Substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28 Cell Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 Chapter 3: Tissues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Epithelial Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48 Connective Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53 Nervous Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59 Muscle Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59 Chapter 4: The Integumentary System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Th e Skin and Its Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63 Th e Epidermis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65 Th e Dermis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66 Th e Hypodermis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66 Accessory Organs of the Skin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 Chapter 5: Bones And Skeletal Tissues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Functions of Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69 Types of Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70 Bone Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70 Bone Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73 Bone Growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74 Bone Homeostasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74 Surface Features of Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75 02_9780470878743-ftoc.indd iii 02_9780470878743-ftoc.indd iii 6/16/11 3:26 PM 6/16/11 3:26 PM iv CliffsNotes Anatomy & Physiology Quick Review Chapter 6: The Skeletal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Organization of the Skeleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77 Skull: Cranium and Facial Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81 Hyoid Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84 Vertebral Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84 Th orax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87 Pectoral Girdle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89 Upper Limb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89 Pelvic Girdle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90 Lower Limb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91 Chapter 7: Articulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Classifying Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93 Chapter 8: Muscle Tissue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Types of Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100 Connective Tissue Associated with Muscle Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100 Structure of Skeletal Muscle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101 Muscle Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102 Muscle metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107 Structure of Cardiac and Smooth Muscle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110 Chapter 9: The Muscular System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113 Skeletal Muscle Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113 Names of Skeletal Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114 Muscle Size and Arrangement of Muscle Fascicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115 Major Skeletal Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115 Chapter 10: Nervous Tissue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129 Neurons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129 Neuroglia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132 Myelination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132 Transmission of Nerve Impulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133 Th e Synapse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136 Chapter 11: The Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139 Nervous System Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140 Nervous System Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142 Th e Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142 Th e Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150 02_9780470878743-ftoc.indd iv 02_9780470878743-ftoc.indd iv 6/16/11 3:26 PM 6/16/11 3:26 PM Table of Contents v Th e Meninges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151 Th e Blood-Brain Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152 Cranial Nerves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152 Th e Spinal Cord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154 Spinal Nerves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157 Refl exes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158 Th e Autonomic Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161 Chapter 12: The Sensory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167 Sensory Receptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167 Th e Somatic Senses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168 Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169 Hearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176 Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179 Smell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180 Taste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180 Chapter 13: The Endocrine System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183 Hormones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183 Th e Hypothalamus and Pituitary Glands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186 Endocrine Organs and Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192 Antagonistic Hormones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193 Chapter 14: The Cardiovascular System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195 Th e Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196 Th e Blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196 Blood Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201 Hemostasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203 Blood Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205 Circulatory Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206 Th e Heart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206 Cardiac Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211 Cardiac Muscle Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212 Electrocardiogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213 Th e Cardiac Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215 Cardiac Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216 Blood Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217 Blood Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220 Control of Blood Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221 Blood Vessels of the Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223 02_9780470878743-ftoc.indd v 02_9780470878743-ftoc.indd v 6/16/11 3:26 PM 6/16/11 3:26 PM vi CliffsNotes Anatomy & Physiology Quick Review Chapter 15: The Lymphatic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227 Lymphatic System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227 Lymphatic Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228 Lymphoid Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231 Lymphatic Tissues and Organs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231 Chapter 16: The Immune System And Other Body Defenses. . . . . . .237 Protecting Your Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237 Nonspecifi c Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238 Nonspecifi c Defenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238 Specifi c Defense (Th e Immune System) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240 Major Histocompatibility Complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241 Lymphocytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241 Antibodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243 Costimulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244 Humoral and Cell-Mediated Immune Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244 Supplements to the Immune Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245 Chapter 17: The Respiratory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247 Function of the Respiratory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .248 Structure of the Respiratory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .248 Lungs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253 Mechanics of Breathing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253 Lung Volumes and Capacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .254 Gas Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255 Gas Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .256 Control of Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258 Chapter 18: The Digestive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261 Function of the Digestive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261 Structure of the Digestive Tract Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .263 Digestive Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .264 Th e Mouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265 Th e Pharynx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267 Th e Esophagus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267 Deglutition (Swallowing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267 Th e Stomach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268 Th e Small Intestine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270 Large Intestine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273 Th e Pancreas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274 Th e Liver and Gallbladder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .275 Regulation of Digestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .276 02_9780470878743-ftoc.indd vi 02_9780470878743-ftoc.indd vi 6/16/11 3:26 PM 6/16/11 3:26 PM Table of Contents vii Chapter 19: The Urinary System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281 Anatomy of the Kidneys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .282 Regulation of Urine Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292 Ureters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294 Urinary Bladder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294 Urethra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294 Chapter 20: The Reproductive System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .297 What Is Reproduction? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .297 Th e Male Reproductive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .297 Th e Female Reproduction System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .304 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315 The Resource Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349 02_9780470878743-ftoc.indd vii 02_9780470878743-ftoc.indd vii 6/16/11 3:26 PM 6/16/11 3:26 PM 02_9780470878743-ftoc.indd viii 02_9780470878743-ftoc.indd viii 6/16/11 3:26 PM 6/16/11 3:26 PM INTRODUCTION E veryone, from high school students to medical students, needs to have a basic knowledge of human anatomy and physiology. If you under- stand how your body is built and the different functions it performs, you will likely appreciate it more than you probably do. The human body is complex and houses many systems. A general grasp of biology is helpful in understanding anatomy, but not necessary, while a general knowledge of chemistry is beneficial in comprehending physiology. Don’t worry if you don’t have that knowledge; this book gives you the basics so you can understand the rest. Why You Need This Book Can you answer yes to any of these questions? ■ Do you need to review the fundamentals of anatomy and physiology fast? ■ Do you need a course supplement to human anatomy and physiology? ■ Do you need a concise, comprehensive reference for anatomy and physiology? If so, then CliffsNotes Anatomy & Physiology Quick Review, 2nd Edition, is for you! How to Use This Book You’re in charge here. You get to decide how to use this book. You can read it straight through or just look for the information that you want and then put the book back on the shelf for later use. Here are a few of the recommended ways to search for information about a particular topic: ■ Look for areas of interest in the book’s table of contents or use the index to find specific topics. ■ Flip through the book, looking for subject areas at the top of each page. 03_9780470878743-intro.indd 1 03_9780470878743-intro.indd 1 6/16/11 3:27 PM 6/16/11 3:27 PM 2 CliffsNotes Anatomy & Physiology Quick Review ■ Get a glimpse of what you’ll gain from a chapter by reading through the “Chapter Check-In” at the beginning of each chapter. ■ Use the “Chapter Check-Out” at the end of each chapter to gauge your grasp of the important information you need to know. ■ Test your knowledge more completely in the Review Questions and find additional sources of information in the Resource Center. ■ Look in the glossary for important terms and definitions. If a word is boldfaced in the text, you can find a more complete definition in the glossary. Hundreds of Practice Questions Online! Go to CliffsNotes.com for hundreds of additional anatomy and physiol- ogy practice questions to help prepare you for your next quiz or test. The questions are organized by this book’s chapter sections, so it’s easy to use the book and then quiz yourself online to make sure you know the sub- ject. Go to www.cliffsnotes.com to test yourself anytime and find other free homework help. 03_9780470878743-intro.indd 2 03_9780470878743-intro.indd 2 6/16/11 3:27 PM 6/16/11 3:27 PM Chapter 1 ANATOMY AND CHEMISTRY BASICS Chapter Check-In ❑ Understanding the basics of anatomy ❑ Noting the basic chemical constituents that help form matter ❑ Listing the types of bonds that form between two atoms ❑ Understanding the difference between inorganic and organic compounds ❑ Describing the four classes of organic molecules ❑ Finding out how a chemical reaction occurs in a biological system A fter you know the basic terms of anatomy but before studying the structure and function of the body, you need to have a basic knowl- edge of chemistry that will be pertinent to your studies. Some of the chem- istry presented in this chapter may not be new to you. In fact, the organic molecules of carbohydrates, lipids (such as fats, cholesterol, and steroids), and proteins are the staples of a healthy diet and lifestyle. Learning these basic chemical components is essential for future studies in physiology, nutrition, and many other fields of scientific interest. What Is Anatomy and Physiology? Anatomy is the study of the structure and relationship between body parts. Physiology is the study of the function of body parts and the body as a whole. Some specializations within each of these sciences follow: 04_9780470878743-ch01.indd 3 04_9780470878743-ch01.indd 3 6/16/11 3:27 PM 6/16/11 3:27 PM 4 CliffsNotes Anatomy & Physiology Quick Review ■ Gross (macroscopic) anatomy is the study of body parts visible to the naked eye, such as the heart or bones. ■ Histology is the study of tissues at the microscopic level. ■ Cytology is the study of cells at the microscopic level. ■ Neurophysiology is the study of how the nervous system functions. Organizations of living systems Living systems can be defined from various perspectives, from the broad (looking at the entire earth) to the minute (individual atoms). Each perspec- tive provides information about how or why a living system functions: ■ At the chemical level, atoms, molecules (combinations of atoms), and the chemical bonds between atoms provide the framework upon which all living activity is based. ■ The cell is the smallest unit of life. Organelles within the cell are specialized bodies performing specific cellular functions. Cells them- selves may be specialized. Thus, there are nerve cells, bone cells, and muscle cells. ■ A tissue is a group of similar cells performing a common function. Muscle tissue, for example, consists of muscle cells. ■ An organ is a group of different kinds of tissues working together to perform a particular activity. The heart is an organ composed of muscle, nervous, connective, and epithelial tissues. ■ An organ system is two or more organs working together to accom- plish a particular task. The digestive system, for example, involves the coordinated activities of many organs, including the mouth, stomach, small and large intestines, pancreas, and liver. ■ An organism is a system possessing the characteristics of living things—the ability to obtain and process energy, the ability to respond to environmental changes, and the ability to reproduce. Homeostasis A characteristic of all living systems is homeostasis, or the maintenance of stable, internal conditions within specific limits. In many cases, stable conditions are maintained by negative feedback. 04_9780470878743-ch01.indd 4 04_9780470878743-ch01.indd 4 6/16/11 3:27 PM 6/16/11 3:27 PM Chapter 1: Anatomy and Chemistry Basics 5 In negative feedback, a sensing mechanism (a receptor) detects a change in conditions beyond specific limits. A control center, or integrator (often the brain), evaluates the change and activates a second mechanism (an effector) to correct the condition; for example, cells that either remove or add glucose to the blood in an effort to maintain homeostasis are effec- tors. Conditions are constantly monitored by receptors and evaluated by the control center. When the control center determines that conditions have returned to normal, corrective action is discontinued. Thus, in nega- tive feedback, the variant condition is canceled, or negated, so that condi- tions are returned to normal. The regulation of glucose concentration in the blood illustrates how homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback. After a meal, the absorp- tion of glucose (a sugar) from the digestive tract increases the amount of glucose in the blood. In response, specialized cells in the pancreas (alpha cells) secrete the hormone insulin, which circulates through the blood and stimulates liver and muscle cells to absorb the glucose. Once blood glucose levels return to normal, insulin secretion stops. Later, perhaps after heavy exercise, blood glucose levels may drop because muscle cells absorb glucose from the blood and use it as a source of energy for muscle contraction. In response to falling blood glucose levels, another group of specialized pan- creatic cells (beta cells) secretes a second hormone, glucagon. Glucagon stimulates the liver to release its stored glucose into the blood. When blood glucose levels return to normal, glucagon secretion stops. Compare this with positive feedback, in which an action intensifies a condition so that it is driven farther beyond normal limits. Such positive feedback is uncommon but does occur during blood clotting, childbirth (labor contractions), lactation (where milk production increases in response to an increase in nursing), and sexual orgasm. Anatomic terminology In order to accurately identify areas of the body, clearly defined anatomi- cal terms are used. These terms refer to the body in the anatomical position—standing erect, facing forward, arms down at the side, with the palms turned forward. In this position, the following apply: 04_9780470878743-ch01.indd 5 04_9780470878743-ch01.indd 5 6/16/11 3:27 PM 6/16/11 3:27 PM