Clean Technology and the Environment Clean Technology and the Environment Edited by R.C. Kirkwood Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology University of Strathc1yde Glasgow and A.J. Longley Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council Swindon SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.Y. First edition 1995 © 1995 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Originally published. by Chapman & Hall in 1995 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1s t edition 1995 Typeset in 10112 pt Times by Photoprint, Torquay, Devon ISBN 978-94-010-4572-8 ISBN 978-94-011-1312-0 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-011-1312-0 Apart from any fair dealing for ehe purposes of research or private study, or eriticism or review, as permiUed under the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Aet, 1988, this publication may not be reprodueed, stored, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the pUbJishers, or in the case of reprographie reproduction only in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organisation outside the UK. Enquiries conceming reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to the publishers at the Glasgow address printed on Ihis page. The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this baok and cannot accepl any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made. A catalogue record for this book is availabJe from the Brilish Library Library of Congress CataJog Card Number: 94-67890 ~,Prinled on acid-free text paper, manufaetured in acoordance with ANSIINISO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of Paper) Preface Many environmental problems resulting from atmospheric, land and water pollution are now widely understood. The combination of both improved technology and legislative pressure has led to a reduction in pollution from industrial practices in the West in recent years. However, sustainable development is dependent upon a new approach to environmental protection - clean technology. This book is in two parts. The first explores the ecological principles governing the function of ecosystems, sustain ability and biodiversity (Chapter 1) and the problems resulting from atmospheric pollution (Chapter 2), water pollution (Chapter 3) and land pollution (Chapter 4). For example, there is increasing international concern that the combustion of fossil fuels is leading to an increase in the levels of carbon, sulphur and nitrogen gases which pollute the atmosphere of our planet. The enhanced levels of carbon gases such as carbon dioxide may cause change in our global climate and, in tum, lead to flooding and loss of low-lying coastal regions. In addition, the deposition of sulphur and nitrogen oxides is believed to be the cause of 'acid rain' which has led to loss of fish stocks from upland lochs and damage to forestry plantations. The problem of pollution of rivers, lakes and estuaries is widespread, occurring in association with human aggregation in towns and cities. It results from the release of sewage and other readily decomposable waste products (e.g. from farming or food industries) which lead to a biological oxygen demand (BOD), loss of dissolved oxygen and death of aerobes (oxygen-requiring organisms). A more insidious problem concerns the transmission of persistent compounds via food webs leading to the accumulation of chemical residues at the upper trophic (feeding) levels and possible death of carnivores such as birds of prey. Such 'biomagnification' can occur in the form of persistent inorganic and organic compounds found in the effluents from manufacturing processes or released from landfill sites; they include heavy metals, radioisotopes, certain persistent pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls. The difficult, but critical, questions of assessing and assigning the economic costs and implications of pollution are discussed in Chapter 5, and the concept of clean technology as a means of avoiding environmental damage at source, rather than reducing environmental damage by end of pipe abatement, is introduced in Part II of the book. Contributions from specialists in industry and academia then discuss the potential impacts and implications of a clean techRology approach to specific industrial sectors. vi CLEAN TECHNOLOGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT This book should be of interest to anyone concerned with environmental pollution, conservation, legislation and management. It should be invalu able to people in industry, government or research institutions whose remit concerns environmental protection, environmental impact assessment, and environmental monitoring. Additionally, it should be a useful reference for undergraduates and postgraduates who are specialising in an environ mentally related discipline, such as environmental biology, chemistry or science, or environmental analysis, policy or management. , R.C.K. A.J.L. Contributors R. Clift Centre for Environmental Strategy, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, GU2 5XH, UK D.E. Conlan ARIC (Atmospheric Research and Information Centre), Department of Environmental and Geo graphical Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan Uni versity, Chester Street, Manchester, M1 5GD, UK P. Fryer Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Cambridge, Pembroke Street, Cambridge, CB2 3RA, UK D. Hammerton Director of Clyde River Purification Board, Rivers House, Murray Road, East Kilbride, G75 OLA, UK R.C. Kirkwood University of Strathclyde, Dept. of Bioscience and Bio technology, Todd Centre, 31 Taylor Street, Glasgow, G40NR, UK Z.M. Lees Faculty of Agriculture Microbiology and Plant Pathology, University of Natal, PO Box 375, Pietermaritzburg 3200, South Africa J.W.S. Longhurst ARIC (Atmospheric Research and Information Centre), Department of Environmental and Geo graphical Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan Uni versity, Chester Street, Manchester, M1 5GD, UK A.J. Longley EPSRC, Clean Technology Unit, Polaris House, North Star Avenue, Swindon, SN2 lET, UK R. Mackison 474 Reigate Road, Epsom, Surrey, KT18 5XA, UK P.S. Owen ARIC (Atmospheric Research and Information Centre), Department of Environmental and Geo graphical Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan Uni versity, Chester Street, Manchester, M1 5GD, UK D. Pearce University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK D.W. Raper ARIC (Atmospheric Research and Information Centre), Department of Environmental and Geo- Vlll CLEAN TECHNOLOGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT graphical Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan Uni versity, Chester Street, Manchester, MI 5GD, UK E. Senior Faculty of Agriculture Microbiology and Plant Pathology, University of Natal, PO Box 375, Pietermaritzburg 3200, South Africa C.J. Suckling Department of Pure/Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, Thomas Graham Building, 295 Cathedral Street, Glasgow, GIIXL, UK J.W. TwideU The AMSET Centre, School of Engineering and Manufacture, De Montfort University at Leicester, Leicester, LEI 9BH, UK A.R.F. Watson ARIC (Atmospheric Research and Information Centre), Department of Environmental and Geo graphical Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan Uni versity, Chester Street, Manchester, MI 5GD, UK Contents 1 Environment and human inftuence 1 R.C. KIRKWOOD 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 The environmental issue 1 1.2.1 Sustain ability and biodiversity 1 1.3 The environment, abiotic and biotic components 2 1.4 The ecosystem, energy flow, biogeochemical cycling and biodiversity 3 1.5 Human population increase and its influence on the environment 4 1.6 The problem of environmental pollutants 6 1.6.1 Atmospheric pollution 6 1.6.2 Water pollution 7 1.6.3 Land pollution 7 1. 7 The scope and nature of the problem of toxic chemicals 8 1.8 The strategy of sustainable development 11 1.8.1 Historical 11 1.8.2 National responsibilities 14 1.8.3 Sustainable development 16 1.9 Clean technology in relation to major industrial processes 18 1.9.1 Clean synthesis of bulk chemicals 19 1.9.2 Farming as an engineering process 21 1. 9.3 Predictive modelling as a tool in clean technology 23 1.9.4 Reducing the environmental impact of pesticides 26 1.9.5 Biotechnological approaches towards improving environmental acceptability of novel pesticides 27 1.10 Concluding remarks 28 References 30 2 Atmospheric pollution: components, mechanisms, control and remediation 32 J.W.S. LONGHURST, P.S. OWEN, D.E. CONLAN, A.F.R. WATSON and D.W. RAPER 2.1 Introduction 32 2.2 The structure of the atmosphere 32 2.3 Key air pollution species 34 2.3.1 Nitrogen oxides 34 2.3.2 Sulphur dioxide 34 2.3.3 Ozone 34 2.3.4 Carbon monoxide 35 2.3.5 Lead 35 2.3.6 Particulate matter 36 2.3.7 Volatile organic compounds 36 2.4 Air quality standards and guidelines 36 2.5 Emissions of air pollutants 36 2.5.1 Sulphur dioxide 40 2.5.2 Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) 40 2.5.3 Ammonia 42 2.5.4 Volatile organic compounds (VOC) 42 2.5.5 Estimating emission strengths 42 x CLEAN TECHNOLOGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT 2.6 Transport, reaction and deposition of air pollutants 43 2.6.1 Removal and reactions of sulphur and nitrogen 47 2.6.2 Photochemistry 47 2.6.3 Particulate matter 49 2.7 Toxic organic pollutants 53 2.7.1 Photochemical oxidation 54 2.7.2 VOC emissions 56 2.7.3 Other toxic organic pollutants 57 2.7.4 Peroxyacetyl nitrate 57 2.7.5 Control of toxic organic emissions 58 2.7.6 Analytical techniques 59 2.8 Acid deposition 60 2.8.1 The scale and importance of acid deposition 61 2.8.2 Monitoring programmes and patterns of deposition 61 2.8.3 Effects of acid deposition on freshwater systems 62 2.8.4 The effects of acid deposition on vegetation 64 2.8.5 Other effects 67 2.8.6 Technology for control of acid deposition precursors 71 2.8.7 International regulation 72 2.9 Stratospheric ozone depletion 73 2.9.1 Formation of stratospheric ozone 75 2.9.2 Stratosphere - troposphere exchange 75 2.9.3 International control programmes: the Montreal protocol 76 2.10 The greenhouse effect 78 2.10.1 Carbon dioxide (C02) 79 2.10.2 The earth's natural greenhouse 79 2.10.3 Impacts of the enhanced greenhouse effect 80 2.10.4 International control programmes: the convention on climate change 81 2.11 Conclusions 82 References 82 3 Water pollution 87 D. HAMMERTON 3.1 Introduction: water - the essential resource 87 3.2 The present state of the aquatic environment 89 3.2.1 River pollution in the United Kingdom 89 3.2.2 The global state of river pollution 92 3.2.3 Pollution of groundwaters 97 3.2.4 Marine pollution in the United Kingdom 98 3.2.5 The global state of marine pollution 100 3.3 The impact of pollution on aquatic systems 101 3.3.1 Defining pollution 101 3.3.2 Organic wastes 102 3.3.3 Dangerous substances 103 3.3.4 Acids and alkalis 107 3.3.5 Biological detection of pollution 107 3.4 Legislation and control systems 108 3.4.1 European legislation 108 3.4.2 UK legislation and control systems 109 3.4.3 Control in other EC member states 110 3.4.4 Water pollution control in the USA 111 3.4.5 Pollution control in developing countries 112 3.5 The way ahead 113 3.5.1 Recent progress 113 3.5.2 The quest for higher standards 113 CONTENTS xi 3.5.3 The green image versus the industrial lobby 116 3.5.4 The need for clean technology 117 References 118 4 Bioremediation: a practical solution to land pollution 120 Z.M. LEES and E. SENIOR 4.1 Introduction 120 4.2 Microbial nutrition and environmental requirements 123 4.3 Bioremediation options 124 4.3.1 Bioreactors 124 4.3.2 Aerobic bioreactor technology 126 4.3.3 Anaerobic bioreactor treatment 129 4.4 Composting 129 4.4.1 Co-composting 130 4.5 Land treatment 131 4.5.1 The feasibility study 132 4.5.2 Design and construction of above ground biodegradation facilities 132 4.5.3 Operation and maintenance of biotreatment cells 133 4.6 In situ bioremediation 134 4.6.1 Preliminary site investigation 137 4.6.2 Full-scale implementation and monitoring 138 4.7 The oxygen question 138 4.7.1 Use of hydrogen peroxide in bioremediation 139 4.7.2 Bioventing 140 4.7.3 Alternative oxygen sources or electron acceptors 141 4.7.4 Anaerobic in situ bioremediation 142 4.8 Conclusions 143 References 143 5 The economics of pollution 147 D. PEARCE 5.1 Introduction: environmental economics 147 5.2 The basic analytics 147 5.3 Illustrating the economic approach - 'energy adders' 152 5.3.1 Health mortality 156 5.3.2 Health morbidity 157 5.3.3 Crop damage 158 5.3.4 Forests 158 5.3.5 Buildings 158 5.4 An application to recycling and waste disposal 163 5.4.1 Disposal taxes 168 5.4.2 Product taxes 171 5.4.3 Virgin materials tax 172 5.5 Conclusions 172 References 172 6 Introduction to clean technology 174 R. CLIFT and A.J. LONGLEY 6.1 Clean technology and clean-up technology 174 6.2 How clean is the technology? Environmental life cycle assessment 177 6.3 Services and commodities 181 6.4 Materials reuse: the new industrial ecology 186 6.5 Waste reduction at source 193 6.6 Concluding remarks 196 References 197