Stephen Webb CLASH OF SYMBOLS A Ride Through the Riches of Glyphs Clash of Symbols Stephen Webb Clash of Symbols A Ride Through the Riches of Glyphs Stephen Webb Mercantile House University of Portsmouth Portsmouth, UK ISBN 978-3-319-71349-6 ISBN978- 3-319-71350-2 (e Book) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71350-2 Library of Congress Control Number: 2017961109 © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. 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Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland To my nieces, Emily and Abigail Acknowledgments I would like to thank Chris Caron of Springer for his invaluable help and advice in preparing this manuscript for publication. It has been difffiicult, given the book’s subject matter, to fiind appropri- ate fonts. The main body font used is EB Garamond by Georg Dufffner; the font used for headings is Source Sans Pro by Paul D. Hunt. Various individual glyphs have been taken from the fonts Symbola (created by George Douras), Quivira (created by Alexander Lange), Junicode (created by Peter S. Baker), Bravura (created by Daniel Spreadbury), and Klingon pIqaD (created by Michael Everson). I would like to thank these talented designers for making their work open source. I created certain other sym- bols myself, using Theunis de Jong’s IndyFont script. I am grateful to Gary Anderson and Erin McKean for swift responses to requests for permission to use images. Finally, as always, I would like to thank Heike and Jessica for their patience and support. vii Contents Introduction ........................................................................... 1 1 Character sketches ............................................................... 5 2 Signs of the times ................................................................. 49 3 Signs and wonders ............................................................... 93 4 It’s Greek to me ..................................................................... 137 5 Meaningless marks on paper ............................................. 181 Notes ....................................................................................... 225 Bibliography .......................................................................... 235 Index ........................................................................................ 239 ix Introduction Glyph riches and the joy of T X E Most science students, at one time or another, must have asked themselves or their teachers why we use certain symbols in particular contexts: ‘why does c stand for the speed of light?’; ‘who chose π to represent the ratio of a circle’s diameter to its circumference?’; ‘what’s the deal with using (cid:2230) for Mars and (cid:2228) for Venus?’. And, since bright students are aware that science doesn’t act in a vacuum, they are quite likely to ask similar questions of a more general kind: ‘why do we use @ in email addresses?’; ‘who designed the (cid:2278) sign for recycling?’; ‘what’s the reasoning behind having a (cid:1631) key on my computer keyboard?’ I wrote this book for the students who ask those sorts of questions. My own interest in symbols came about in a tortuous fashion. In the mid- to late-1980s I was working towards a PhD in theoretical physics. My research involved calculating various quantities of interest using toy mod- els based on quantum chromodynamics (don’t ask). Eventually the time came for me to write up the results of all my tedious labour, which meant I had to fiind a way of putting mathematics down on paper. My calcula- tions didn’t employ particularly intricate mathematics, but what I lacked in mathematical sophistication I made up for with sheer volume — I had short equations interspersed in the text itself, important equations that warranted their own lines, and long equations which, when displayed, occupied most of a page. To produce my thesis I was tempted to adopt the simplest approach: use a typewriter to type the words and leave gaps in which I could fiill in the maths later by hand. (For younger readers, a typewriter is a keyboard-based device with an extremely low-bandwidth internet connection.) The trouble was, my particular mixture of typewrit- ing and handwritten maths resembled more a late-period Jackson Pollock than a scientifiic thesis. I wanted my thesis to at least appear professional. The geeks in the department suggested I try a variant of a computer pro- gram called trofff. I did try it, but I lacked the technical profiiciency to make it work. Even the geeks who were able to manipulate trofff didn’t much like using it. And then I discovered the joy of TEX. 1 2 A Clash of Symbols TEX (it’s pronounced ‘tech’, with a soft ‘ch’ as in the composer Bach) is the creation of Donald Ervin Knuth, one of the greatest of computer scientists. Knuth, among his many accomplishments, is the author of the seminal multivolume work The Art of Computer Programming. In 1976 he prepared a revised edition of one of the early volumes in the series, a book containing a lot of mathematics, but found himself frustrated by various difffiiculties in the production process. He therefore decided to develop his own typesetting system, one that would let him typeset fur- ther volumes efffiiciently and to a quality that met his (extremely exacting) standards. The result was TEX. The fiirst release of the software came in 1978; a rewritten version was released in 1982. I was fortunate in that, just before I began to write my thesis, the depart- mental geeks installed TEX on the central computers (we didn’t have per- sonal computers back then). I instantly found the system simple to use — it was much simpler than trofff — and, in addition to handling with ease whatever equations I chose to throw at it, TEX typeset my words beauti- fully. Me and my fellow students pounced on TEX and soon we were using it to produce all sorts of important documents, my favourite being a party invitation whose words we typeset in the shape of a guitar. After the PhD was completed I discovered, not entirely to my surprise, that those quantum chromodynamical calculations I’d slaved over were of little use either to me or anyone else. What did surprise me was that the TEX skills I’d developed in writing my thesis were in demand — and they remain useful to me to this day. I’ve used TEX to write academic papers and teaching materials; I’ve helped deploy TEX systems in science pub- lishers; and TEX remains my favoured option when typesetting my books. TEX is a bullet-proof piece of software — I can’t remember it ever crashing — while documents written in TEX possess remarkable longevity: I can typeset documents written more than a quarter of a century ago, on com- puters whose manufacturers long ago went out of business, and get exactly the same output today as I did back then. Another factor helping to make TEX so attractive was that Knuth offfered it up for free — even when I was a penniless student I could always affford TEX. The open nature of TEX, its stability, high quality and low price point (it’s always difffiicult to argue with free) led to the development of a world- wide community of practitioners. And as I began to make more use of TEX myself I learned of people who were using it to typeset not only math- Introduction: glyph riches and the joy of TEX 3 The longevity and stability of TEX has much to do with the fact that Knuth made the source code freely available for the community to study, analyse, and improve. If you spot a coding error in TEX (or simply an error in one of his books) you can write to Knuth and receive one of his famous reward cheques, as shown above. The cheques are typically for small dollar amounts, but are much prized in the com- munity. There’s a programming quotation that goes ‘Intelligence: finding an error in a Knuth text. Stupidity: cashing that $2.56 cheque you got.’ With so many eyes having scanned its source code for errors, TEX is rock solid. (Credit: Baishampayan Ghose) heavy texts but also critical editions, chess commentaries, general maga- zines… all manner of publications. In order to facilitate their work these practitioners often developed TEX packages and, in the same community spirit that fiired Knuth, they made their work freely available. It was when I dipped into these packages that I began to discover a world full of unfamil- iar, oddly shaped glyphs — or characters or symbols; call them what you will. Those packages sparked an abiding interest in glyphs. (Incidentally, many of the glyphs I pondered over were generated by a computer pro- gram called Metafont, which is yet another of Knuth’s creations.) Someone went to the bother of creating TEX commands for the produc- tion of symbols such as ſ, Ϊ, ϙ. But why? What was (cid:1125) used for? What did (cid:1157) mean? What did (cid:1175) stand for? Come to think of it, what was the story behind all those symbols that I was familiar with — punctuation marks such as ! or mathematical symbols such as ∞ or astronomical signs such as (cid:2247)? Where did they come from? Those questions — and similar ones asked of me by students over the years — led to this book, a collection of stories relating to one hundred