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Printed: July 2, 2012 Author Dana Desonie Contributors John Benner, David Bethel, Craig Freudenrich, Corliss Karasov, Mary Lusk, Kurt Rosenkrantz, Julie Sandeen i www.ck12.org Contents 1 HS What is Earth Science? 1 1.1 The Nature of Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.2 Earth Science and Its Branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2 HS Studying Earth’s Surface 22 2.1 Earth’s Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.2 Where in the World Are You? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.3 Modeling Earth’s Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 2.4 Topographic Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 2.5 Using Satellites and Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 3 HS Earth’s Minerals 55 3.1 Matter Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 3.2 Minerals and Mineral Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 3.3 Mineral Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 3.4 Mineral Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 3.5 Mining and Mineral Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 4 HS Rocks 89 4.1 Types of Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 4.2 Igneous Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 4.3 Sedimentary Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 4.4 Metamorphic Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 5 HS Earth’s Energy 118 5.1 Energy Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 5.2 Non-renewable Energy Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 5.3 Renewable Energy Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 6 HS Plate Tectonics 153 www.ck12.org ii 6.1 Inside Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 6.2 Continental Drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 6.3 Seafloor Spreading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 6.4 Theory of Plate Tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 7 HS Earthquakes 193 7.1 Stress in Earth’s Crust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 7.2 The Nature of Earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 7.3 Measuring and Predicting Earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 7.4 Staying Safe in Earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 8 HS Volcanoes 236 8.1 Where Volcanoes Are Located . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 8.2 Volcanic Eruptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 8.3 Types of Volcanoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 8.4 Volcanic Landforms and Geothermal Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 9 HS Weathering and Formation of Soil 267 9.1 Weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 9.2 Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 10 HS Erosion and Deposition 289 10.1 Water Erosion and Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 10.2 Wave Erosion and Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 10.3 Wind Erosion and Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 10.4 Glacial Erosion and Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 10.5 Erosion and Deposition by Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 11 HS Evidence About Earth’s Past 332 11.1 Fossils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 11.2 Relative Ages of Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 11.3 Absolute Ages of Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 12 HS Earth’s History 367 12.1 Early Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 12.2 The Precambrian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 12.3 Phanerozoic Earth History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 12.4 History of Earth’s Complex Life Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 iii www.ck12.org 13 HS Earth’s Fresh Water 415 13.1 Water on Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416 13.2 Surface Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 13.3 Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 14 HS Earth’s Oceans 443 14.1 Introduction to the Oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 14.2 Ocean Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 14.3 The Seafloor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467 14.4 Ocean Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474 15 HS Earth’s Atmosphere 488 15.1 The Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 15.2 Atmospheric Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 15.3 Energy in the Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 15.4 Air Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514 16 HS Weather 527 16.1 Weather and Atmospheric Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528 16.2 Changing Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 16.3 Storms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541 16.4 Weather Forecasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556 17 HS Climate 569 17.1 Climate and Its Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570 17.2 World Climates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 17.3 Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590 18 HS Ecosystems and Human Populations 613 18.1 Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614 18.2 The Carbon Cycle and the Nitrogen Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624 18.3 Human Populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633 19 HS Human Actions and the Land 649 19.1 Loss of Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650 19.2 Pollution of the Land. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658 20 HS Human Actions and Earth’s Resources 665 www.ck12.org iv 20.1 Use and Conservation of Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666 20.2 Energy Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675 21 HS Human Actions and Earth’s Waters 682 21.1 Humans and the Water Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683 21.2 Problems with Water Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692 21.3 Water Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698 21.4 Protecting the Water Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708 22 HS Human Actions and the Atmosphere 716 22.1 Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717 22.2 Effects of Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726 22.3 Reducing Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740 23 HS Observing and Exploring Space 750 23.1 Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751 23.2 Early Space Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766 23.3 Recent Space Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779 24 HS Earth, Moon, and Sun 792 24.1 Planet Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793 24.2 Earth’s Moon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798 24.3 The Sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803 24.4 The Sun and the Earth-Moon System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811 25 HS The Solar System 820 25.1 Introduction to the Solar System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821 25.2 Inner Planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834 25.3 Outer Planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847 25.4 Other Objects in the Solar System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858 26 HS Stars, Galaxies, and the Universe 872 26.1 Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873 26.2 Galaxies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887 26.3 The Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896 v www.ck12.org 27 HS Earth Science Glossary 909 www.ck12.org vi Chapter 1 HS What is Earth Science? Earth science is the study of our home planet and all of its components: its lands, waters, atmosphere, and interior. In this book, some chapters are devoted to the processes that shape the lands and impact people. Other chapters depict the processes of the atmosphere and its relationship to the planet’s surface and all our living creatures. For as long as people have been on the planet, humans have had to live within Earth’s boundaries. Now human life is having a profound effect on the planet. Several chapters are devoted to the effect people have on the planet. Chapters at the end of the book will explore the universe beyond Earth: planets and their satellites, stars, galaxies, and beyond. The journey to better understanding Earth begins here with an exploration of how scientists learn about the natural world and introduces you to the study of Earth science. 1 www.ck12.org 1.1 The Nature of Science Lesson Objectives • Identify the goal of science. • Explain the importance of asking questions. • Describe how scientists study the natural world. • Explain how and why scientists collect data. • Describe the three major types of scientific models. • Explain how a scientific theory differs from a hypothesis. • Describe appropriate safety precautions inside and outside the science laboratory. Vocabulary • conceptual model • control • dependent variable • hypothesis • independent variable • mathematical model • model • physical model • scientific method • theory Introduction Science is a path to gaining knowledge about the natural world. The study of science also includes the body of knowledge that has been collected through scientific inquiry. Toconductascientificinvestigation,scientistsasktestablequestions. Toanswerthosequestions,theymake systematic observations and carefully collect relevant evidence. Then they use logical reasoning and some imagination to develop hypotheses and explanations. Finally, scientists design and conduct experiments based on their hypotheses. Goal of Science Scientists seek to understand the natural world. Scientists begin with a question and then try to answer the question with evidence and logic. A scientific question must be testable. It does not rely on faith or opinion. Our understanding of natural Earth processes help us to understand why earthquakes occur where they do and to understand the consequences of adding excess greenhouse gases to our atmosphere. Scientific research may be done to build knowledge or to solve problems. Scientific discoveries may lead to technological advances. Pure research often aids in the development of applied research. Sometimes the results of pure research may be applied long after the pure research was completed. Sometimes something unexpected is discovered while scientists are conducting their research. Some ideas are not testable. For example, supernatural phenomena, such as stories of ghosts, werewolves, or vampires, cannot be tested. Look at this website to see why astrology is not scientific: http://undsci. berkeley.edu/images/astrology_checklist.pdf. www.ck12.org 2