The Project Gutenberg EBook of Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama, by Walter L. Fleming This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama Author: Walter L. Fleming Release Date: December 21, 2012 [EBook #41680] Language: English Character set encoding: UTF-8 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CIVIL WAR, RECONSTRUCTION, ALABAMA *** Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries.) CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION IN ALABAMA CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION IN ALABAMA BY WALTER L. FLEMING, Ph.D. PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY New York THE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, Agents LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 1905 All rights reserved Copyright, 1905, By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published October, 1905. Norwood Press J. S. Cushing & Co.—Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. TO MY WIFE MARY BOYD FLEMING PREFACE This work was begun some five years ago as a study of Reconstruction in Alabama. As the field opened it seemed to me that an account of ante-bellum conditions, social, economic, and political, and of the effect of the Civil War upon ante-bellum institutions would be indispensable to any just and comprehensive treatment of the later period. Consequently I have endeavored to describe briefly the society and the institutions that went down during Civil War and Reconstruction. Internal conditions in Alabama during the war period are discussed at length; they are important, because they influenced seriously the course of Reconstruction. Throughout the work I have sought to emphasize the social and economic problems in the general situation, and accordingly in addition to a sketch of the politics I have dwelt at some length upon the educational, religious, and industrial aspects of the period. One point in particular has been stressed throughout the whole work, viz. the fact of the segregation of the races within the state—the blacks mainly in the central counties, and the whites in the northern and the southern counties. This division of the state into “white” counties and “black” counties has almost from the beginning exercised the strongest influence upon the history of its people. The problems of white and black in the Black Belt are not always the problems of the whites and blacks of the white counties. It is hoped that the maps inserted in the text will assist in making clear this point. Perhaps it may be thought that undue space is devoted to the history of the negro during War and Reconstruction, but after all the negro, whether passive or active, was the central figure of the period. Believing that the political problems of War and Reconstruction are of less permanent importance than the forces which have shaped and are shaping the social and industrial life of the people, I have confined the discussion of politics to certain chapters chronologically arranged, while for the remainder of the book the topical method of presentation has been adopted. In describing the political events of Reconstruction I have in most cases endeavored to show the relation between national affairs and local conditions within the state. To such an extent has this been done that in some parts it may perhaps be called a general history with especial reference to local conditions in Alabama. Never before and never since Reconstruction have there been closer practical relations between the United States and the state, between Washington and Montgomery. As to the authorities examined in the preparation of the work it may be stated that practically all material now available—whether in print or in manuscript—has been used. In working with newspapers an effort was made to check up in two or more newspapers each fact used. Most of the references to newspapers—practically all of those to the less reputable papers—are to signed articles. I have had to reject much material as unreliable, and it is not possible that I have been able to sift out all the errors. Whatever remain will prove to be, as I hope and believe, of only minor consequence. Thanks for assistance given are due to friends too numerous to mention all of them by name. For special favors I am indebted to Professor L. D. Miller, Jacksonville, Alabama; Mr. W. O. Scroggs of Harvard University; Professor G. W. Duncan, Auburn, Alabama; Major W. W. Screws of the Montgomery Advertiser; Colonel John W. DuBose, Montgomery, Alabama; Mrs. J. L. Dean, Opelika, Alabama; Major S. A. Cunningham of the Confederate Veteran, Nashville, Tennessee; and Major James R. Crowe, of Sheffield, Alabama. I am indebted to Mr. L. S. Boyd, Washington, D.C., for numerous favors, among them, for calling my attention to the scrap- book collection of Edward McPherson, then shelved in the Library of Congress along with Fiction. On many [Pg vii] [Pg viii] points where documents were lacking, I was materially assisted by the written reminiscences of people familiar with conditions of the time, among them my mother and father, the late Professor O. D. Smith of Auburn, Alabama, and the late Ryland Randolph, Esq., of Birmingham. Many old negroes have related their experiences to me. Hon. Junius M. Riggs of the Alabama Supreme Court Library, by the loan of documents, assisted me materially in working up the financial history of the Reconstruction; Dr. David Y. Thomas of the University of Florida read and criticised the entire manuscript; Dr. Thomas M. Owen, Director of the Alabama Department of Archives and History, has given me valuable assistance from the beginning to the close of the work by reading the manuscript, by making available to me not only the public archives, but also his large private collection, and by securing illustrations. But above all I have been aided by Professor William A. Dunning of Columbia University, at whose instance the work was begun, who gave me many helpful suggestions, read the manuscript, and saved me from numerous pitfalls, and by my wife, who read and criticised both manuscript and proof, and made the maps and the index and prepared some of the illustrations. WALTER L. FLEMING. New York City, August, 1905. CONTENTS PART I INTRODUCTION CHAPTER I Period of Sectional Controversy PAGE Composition of the Population of Alabama 3 The Indians and Nullification 8 Slavery Controversy and Political Divisions 10 Emancipation Sentiment in North Alabama 10 Early Party Divisions 11 William Lowndes Yancey 13 Growth of Secession Sentiment 14 “Unionists” Successful in 1851-1852 16 Yancey-Pryor Debate, 1858 17 The Charleston Convention of 1860 18 The Election of 1860 19 Separation of the Churches, 1821-1861 21 Senator Clay’s Farewell Speech in the Senate 25 CHAPTER II Secession from the Union Secession Convention Called 27 Parties in the Convention 28 Reports on Secession 31 Debate on Secession 31 Political Theories of Members 34 Ordinance of Secession Passed 36 Confederate States Formed 39 Self-denying Ordinance 41 African Slave Trade 42 [Pg ix] [Pg x] [Pg xi] Commissioners to Other States 46 Legislation by the Convention 49 North Alabama in the Convention 53 Incidents of the Session 56 PART II WAR TIMES IN ALABAMA CHAPTER III Military and Political Events Military Operations 61 The War in North Alabama 62 The Streight Raid 67 Rousseau’s Raid 68 The War in South Alabama 69 Wilson’s Raid and the End of the War 71 Destruction by the Armies 74 Military Organization 78 Alabama Soldiers: Number and Character 78 Negro Troops 86 Union Troops from Alabama 87 Militia System 88 Conscription and Exemption 92 Confederate Enrolment Laws 92 Policy of the State in Regard to Conscription 95 Effect of the Enrolment Laws 98 Exemption from Service 100 Tories and Deserters 108 Conditions in North Alabama 109 Unionists, Tories, and Mossbacks 112 Growth of Disaffection 114 Outrages by Tories and Deserters 119 Disaffection in South Alabama 122 Prominent Tories and Deserters 124 Numbers of the Disaffected 127 Party Politics and the Peace Movement 131 Political Conditions, 1861-1865 131 The Peace Society 137 Reconstruction Sentiment 143 CHAPTER IV Economic and Social Conditions Industrial Development during the War 149 Military Industries 149 Manufacture of Arms 150 Nitre Making 153 Private Manufacturing Enterprises 156 Salt Making 157 Confederate Finance in Alabama 162 Banks and Banking 162 Issues of Bonds and Notes by the State 164 Special Appropriations and Salaries 168 [Pg xii] [Pg xiii] Taxation 169 Impressment 174 Debts, Stay Laws, Sequestration 176 Trade, Barter, Prices 178 Blockade-running and Trade through the Lines 183 Scarcity and Destitution, 1861-1865 196 The Negro during the War 205 Military Uses of Negroes 205 Negroes on the Farms 209 Fidelity to Masters 210 Schools and Colleges 212 Confederate Text-books 217 Newspapers 218 Publishing Houses 221 The Churches during the War 223 Attitude on Public Questions 223 The Churches and the Negroes 225 Federal Army and the Southern Churches 227 Domestic Life 230 Society in 1861 230 Life on the Farm 232 Home Industries; Makeshifts and Substitutes 234 Clothes and Fashions 236 Drugs and Medicines 239 Social Life during the War 241 Negro Life 243 Woman’s Work for the Soldiers 244 PART III THE AFTERMATH OF WAR CHAPTER V Social and Economic Disorder Loss of Life in War 251 Destruction of Property 253 The Wreck of the Railways 259 The Interregnum: Lawlessness and Disorder 262 The Negro testing his Freedom 269 How to prove Freedom 270 Suffering among the Negroes 273 Relations between Whites and Blacks 275 Destitution and Want, 1865-1866 277 CHAPTER VI Confiscation and the Cotton Tax Confiscation Frauds 284 Restrictions on Trade in 1865 284 Federal Claims to Confederate Property 285 Cotton Frauds and Stealing 290 Cotton Agents Prosecuted 297 Statistics of the Frauds 299 [Pg xiv] The Cotton Tax 303 CHAPTER VII The Temper of the People After the Surrender 308 “Condition of Affairs in the South” 311 General Grant’s Report 311 Carl Schurz’s Report 312 Truman’s Report 312 Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction 313 The “Loyalists” 316 Treatment of Northern Men 318 Immigration to Alabama 321 Troubles of the Episcopal Church 324 PART IV PRESIDENTIAL RESTORATION CHAPTER VIII First Provisional Administration Theories of Reconstruction 333 Presidential Plan in Operation 341 Early Attempts at “Restoration” 341 Amnesty Proclamation 349 “Proscribing Proscription” 356 The “Restoration” Convention 358 Personnel and Parties 358 Debates on Secession and Slavery 360 “A White Man’s Government” 364 Legislation by the Convention 366 “Restoration” Completed 367 CHAPTER IX Second Provisional Administration Status of the Provisional Government 376 Legislation about Freedmen 378 The Negro under the Provisional Government 383 Movement toward Negro Suffrage 386 New Conditions of Congress and Increasing Irritation 391 Fourteenth Amendment Rejected 394 Political Conditions, 1866-1867; Formation of Parties 398 CHAPTER X Military Government, 1865-1866 The Military Occupation 408 The Army and the Colored Population 410 Administration of Justice by the Army 413 The Army and the White People 417 CHAPTER XI The Wards of the Nation The Freedmen’s Bureau 421 [Pg xv] Department of Negro Affairs 421 Organization of the Bureau 423 The Bureau and the Civil Authorities 427 The Bureau supported by Confiscations 431 The Labor Problem 433 Freedmen’s Bureau Courts 437 Care of the Sick 441 Issue of Rations 442 Demoralization caused by Bureau 444 The Freedmen’s Savings-bank 451 The Freedmen’s Bureau and Negro Education 456 The Failure of the Bureau System 469 PART V CONGRESSIONAL RECONSTRUCTION CHAPTER XII Military Government under the Reconstruction Acts Administration of General John Pope 473 Military Reconstruction Acts 473 Pope’s Control of the Civil Government 477 Pope and the Newspapers 485 Trials by Military Commissions 487 Registration and Disfranchisement 488 Elections and the Convention 491 Removal of Pope and Swayne 492 Administration of General George G. Meade 493 Registration and Elections 493 Administration of Civil Affairs 495 Trials by Military Commissions 498 The Soldiers and the Citizens 500 From Martial Law to Carpet-bag Rule 501 CHAPTER XIII The Campaign of 1867 Attitude of the Whites 503 Organization of the Radical Party in Alabama 505 Conservative Opposition Aroused 512 The Negro’s First Vote 514 CHAPTER XIV The “Reconstruction” Convention Character of the Convention 517 The Race Question 521 Debates on Disfranchisement of Whites 524 Legislation by the Convention 528 CHAPTER XV The “Reconstruction” Completed “Convention” Candidates 531 Campaign on the Constitution 534 Vote on the Constitution 538 [Pg xvi] The Constitution fails of Adoption 541 The Alabama Question in Congress 547 Alabama readmitted to the Union 550 CHAPTER XVI The Union League of America Origin of the Union League 553 Its Extension to the South 556 Ceremonies of the League 559 Organization and Methods 561 PART VI CARPET-BAG AND NEGRO RULE CHAPTER XVII Taxation and the Public Debt Taxation during Reconstruction 571 Administrative Expenses 574 Effect on Property Values 578 The Public Bonded Debt 580 The Financial Settlement 583 CHAPTER XVIII Railroad Legislation and Frauds Federal and State Aid to Railroads before the War 587 General Legislation in Aid of Railroads 589 The Alabama and Chattanooga Railroad 591 Other Indorsed Railroads 600 County and Town Aid to Railroads 604 CHAPTER XIX Reconstruction in the Schools School System before Reconstruction 607 School System of Reconstruction 609 Reconstruction of the State University 612 Trouble in the Mobile Schools 618 Irregularities in School Administration 621 Objections to the Reconstruction Education 624 Negro Education 625 Failure of the Educational System 632 CHAPTER XX Reconstruction in the Churches “Disintegration and Absorption” Policy 637 The Methodists 637 The Baptists 640 The Presbyterians 641 The Churches and the Negro during Reconstruction 642 The Baptists and the Negroes 643 The Presbyterians and the Negroes 646 The Roman Catholics 647 The Episcopalians 647 [Pg xvii] The Methodists and the Negroes 648 CHAPTER XXI The Ku Klux Revolution Causes of the Ku Klux Movement 654 Secret Societies of Regulators before Ku Klux Klan 659 Origin and Growth of Ku Klux Klan 661 The Knights of the White Camelia 671 The Work of the Secret Orders 675 Ku Klux Orders and Warnings 680 Ku Klux “Outrages” 686 Success of the Ku Klux Movement 690 Spurious Ku Klux Organizations 691 Attempts to suppress the Ku Klux Movement 694 State Legislation 695 Enforcement Acts 697 Ku Klux Investigation 703 Later Ku Klux Organizations 709 CHAPTER XXII Reorganization of the Industrial System Break-up of the Ante-bellum System 710 The Freedmen’s Bureau System 717 Northern and Foreign Immigration 718 Attempts to organize a New System 721 Development of the Share and Credit Systems 723 Superiority of White Farmers 727 Decadence of the Black Belt 731 CHAPTER XXIII Political and Social Conditions during Reconstruction Politics and Political Methods 733 The First Reconstruction Administration 733 Reconstruction Judiciary 744 Campaign of 1868 747 The Administration of Governor Lindsay 750 The Administration of Governor Lewis 754 Election of Spencer to the United States Senate 755 Social Conditions during Reconstruction 761 Statistics of Crime 762 Social Relations of Negroes 763 Carpet-baggers and Scalawags 765 Social Effects of Reconstruction on the Whites 766 Economic Conditions 769 CHAPTER XXIV The Overthrow of Reconstruction The Republican Party in 1874 771 Whites desert the Party 771 The Demand of the Negro for Social Rights 772 Disputes among Radical Editors 773 [Pg xviii] [Pg xix] Demand of Negroes for Office 773 Factions within the Party 774 Negroes in 1874 775 Promises made to them 775 Negro Social and Political Clubs 776 Negro Democrats 777 The Democratic and Conservative Party in 1874 778 Attitude of the Whites toward the Blacks 779 The Color Line Drawn 780 “Independent” Candidates 781 The Campaign of 1874 782 Platforms and Candidates 782 “Political Bacon” 783 “Hays-Hawley Letter” 786 Intimidation by Federal Authorities 789 Intimidation by Democrats 791 The Election of 1874 793 The Eufaula Riot 794 Results of the Election 795 Later Phases of State Politics 798 Whites make Secure their Control 798 The “Lily Whites” and the “Black and Tans” 799 The Failure of the Populist Movement 799 The Primary Election System 800 The Negroes Disfranchised 800 Successes and Failures of Reconstruction 801 Appendices: Cotton Production in Alabama, 1860-1900 804 Registration of Voters under the New Constitution 806 Index 809 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Alabama Money Facing 178 Buckley, Rev. C. W. " 552 “Bully for Alabama” " 738 Callis, John B. " 552 Clanton, General James H. " 760 Clemens, Jere " 36 Confederate Capitol, Montgomery " 96 Confederate Monument, Montgomery " 96 Confederate Postage Stamps " 178 Crowe, Major James R. " 760 [Pg xx] [Pg xxi] Curry, Dr. J. L. M. " 626 Davis, Jefferson " 54 Davis, Inauguration of " 96 Davis, Residence of, Montgomery " 96 Gaineswood, a Plantation Home " 8 Hays, Charles " 552 “Hon. Mr. Carraway” " 738 Houston, Governor George S. " 760 John Brown Extra " 18 Johnson, President Andrew " 336 Ku Klux Costumes 675 Ku Klux Hanging Pictures 612 Ku Klux Warning 678 Lewis, Governor D. P. Facing 600 Lindsay, Governor R. B. " 760 Meade, General George G. " 476 Moore, Governor Andrew B. " 130 Negro Members of the Convention of 1875 " 600 “Nigger, Scalawag, Carpetbagger” " 738 Parsons, Governor L. E. " 600 Patton, Governor R. M. " 760 Pope, General John " 476 Prescript (Original) of Ku Klux Klan, Facsimile of Page of " 670 Prescript (revised and amended) of Ku Klux Klan, Facsimile of Page of 665 Private Money Facing 178 Rapier, J. T. " 552 Ritual of the Knights of the White Camelia, Facsimile of Page of " 670 Shorter, Governor John Gill " 130 Smith, Governor William H. " 600 Smith, William R. " 36 Spencer, Senator George E. " 552 Stephens, Alexander H. " 36 Stevens, Thaddeus " 336 Sumner, Charles " 336 Swayne, General Wager " 476 “The Speaker cried out, ‘Order!’” " 738 Thomas, General George H. " 476 Union League Constitution, Facsimile of Page of " 566 Walker, General L. P. " 36 Warner, Senator Willard " 552 Watts, Governor Thomas H. " 130 Wilmer, Bishop R. H. " 130 Yancey, William Lowndes " 36 LIST OF MAPS PAGE [Pg xxii] [Pg xxiii] 1. Population in 1860 4 2. Nativity and Distribution of Public Men 6 3. Election for President, 1860 20 4. Parties in the Secession Convention 29 5. Disaffection toward the Confederacy, 1861-1865 110 6. Industrial Development, 1861-1865 150 7. Devastation by Invading Armies 256 8. Parties in the Convention of 1865 359 9. Registration of Voters under the Reconstruction Acts 494 10. Election for President, 1868 747 11. Election of 1870 750 12. Election of 1872 755 13. Election of 1874 795 14. Election of 1876 796 15. Election of 1880 798 16. Election of 1890 799 17. Election of 1902 under New Constitution 800 PART I INTRODUCTION CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION IN ALABAMA CHAPTER I THE PERIOD OF SECTIONAL CONTROVERSY When Alabama seceded in 1861, it had been in existence as a political organization less than half a century, but in many respects its institutions and customs were as old as European America. The white population was almost purely Anglo-American. The early settlements had been made on the coast near Mobile, and from thence had extended up the Alabama, Tombigbee, and Warrior rivers. In the northern part the Tennessee valley was early settled, and later, in the eastern part, the Coosa valley. After the river valleys, the prairie lands in central Alabama were peopled, and finally the poorer lands of the southeast and the hills south of the Tennessee valley. The bulk of the population before 1861 was of Georgian birth or descent, the settlers having come from middle Georgia, which had been peopled from the hills of Virginia. Georgians came into the Tennessee valley early in the nineteenth century. The Creek reservation prevented immigration into eastern Alabama before the thirties, but the Georgians went around and settled southeast Alabama along the line of the old “Federal road.” When the Creek Indians consented to migrate, it was found that the Georgians were already in possession of the country,—more than 20,000 strong, and a government was at once erected over the Indian counties. People from Georgia also came down the Coosa valley to central Alabama. The Virginians went to the western Black Belt, to the Tennessee valley, and to central Alabama. North Carolina sent thousands of her citizens down through the Tennessee valley and thence across country to the Tombigbee valley and western Alabama; others came through Georgia and followed the routes of Georgia migration. South Carolinians swarmed into the southern, central, and western counties, and a goodly number settled in the Tennessee valley. Tennessee furnished a large proportion of the settlers to the Tennessee valley, to the hill counties south of the Tennessee, and to the valleys in central and western Alabama. Among the immigrants from Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Tennessee was a large Scotch-Irish element, and with the Tennesseeans came a sprinkling of Kentuckians. In western Alabama were a few thousand Mississippians, and into southeast Alabama a few hundred settlers came from Florida. From the [Pg 1] [Pg 2] [Pg 3] [Pg 4] northern states came several thousand, principally New England business men. The foreign element was insignificant—the Irish being most numerous, with a few hundred each of Germans, English, French, and Scotch. In Mobile and Marengo counties there was a slight admixture of French blood in the population.[1] Larger Image In regard to the character of the settlers it has been said that the Virginians were the least practical and the Georgians the most so, while the North Carolinians were a happy medium. The Georgians were noted for their stubborn persistence, and they usually succeeded in whatever they undertook. The Virginians liked a leisurely planter’s life with abundant social pleasures. The Tennesseeans and Kentuckians were hardly distinguishable from the Virginians and Carolinians, to whom they were closely related. The northern professional and business men exercised an influence more than commensurate with their numbers, being, in a way, picked men. Neither the Georgians nor the Virginians were assertive office-seekers, but the Carolinians liked to hold office, and the politics of the state were moulded by the South Carolinians and Georgians. All were naturally inclined to favor a weak federal administration and a strong state government with much liberty of the individual. The theories of Patrick Henry, Jefferson, and Calhoun, not those of Washington and John Marshall, formed the political creed of the Alabamians. NATIVITY OF PUBLIC MEN Larger Image Each figure represents some person who became prominent before 1865, and indicates his native state. The location of the figure on the map indicates his place of residence. Note the segregation along the rivers and the Black Belt. The wealthy people were found in the Tennessee valley, in the Black Belt extending across the centre of the state, and in Mobile, the one large town. They were (except a few of the Mobilians) all slaveholders. The poorer white people went to the less fertile districts of north and southeast Alabama, where land was cheap, preferring to work their own poor farms rather than to work for some one else on better land. But nearly every slave county had its colony of poorer whites, who were invariably settled on the least fertile soils. Among these settlers there was a certain dislike of slavery, because they believed that, were it not for the negro, the whites might themselves live on the fertile lands. Yet they were not in favor of emancipation in any form, unless the negro could be gotten entirely out of the way—a free negro being to them an abomination. If the negro must stay, then they preferred slavery to continue. Over the greater part of Alabama there were no class distinctions before 1860; the state was too young. In the wilderness classes had fused and the successful men were often those never heard of in the older states. A candidate of “the plain people” was always elected, because all were frontier people. This does not mean that in Huntsville, Montgomery, Greensboro, and Mobile there were not the beginnings of an aristocracy based on education, wealth, and family descent. But these were very small spots on the map of Alabama, and there were no heartburnings over social inequalities.[2] Such was the composition of the white population of Alabama before 1860. No matter what might be their political affiliations, in practice nearly all were Democrats of the Jeffersonian school, believing in the largest possible liberty for the individual and in local management of all local affairs, and to the frontier Democrat nearly all questions that concerned him were local. The political leaders excepted, the majority of the population knew little and cared less about the Federal government except when it endeavored to restrain or check them in their course of conquest and expansion in the wilderness. The relations of the people of Alabama with the Federal government were such as to confirm and strengthen them in their local attachments and sectional politics. The controversies that arose in regard to the removal of the Indians, and over the public lands, nullification, slavery, and western expansion, prevented the growth of attachment to the Federal government, and tended to develop a southern rather than a “continental” nationality. The state came into the Union when the sections were engaged in angry debate over the Missouri Compromise measures, and its attitude in Federal politics was determined from the beginning. The next most serious controversy with the Federal government and with the North was in regard to the removal of the Indians from the southern states. The southwestern frontiersmen, like all other Anglo- Americans, had no place in their economy for the Indian, and they were determined that he should not stand in their way. [Pg 5] [Pg 6] [Pg 7] Indians and Nullification For half a century, throughout the Gulf states, the struggle with the Indian tribes for the possession of the fertile lands continued, and in this struggle the Federal government was always against the settlers. Before the removal of the Indians, in 1836, the settlers of Alabama were in almost continual dispute with the Washington administration on this subject.[3] The trouble began in Georgia, and thousands of Georgians brought to Alabama a spirit of jealousy and hostility to the United States government, and a growing dislike of New England and the North on account of their stand in regard to the Indians. For when troubles, legal and otherwise, arose with the Indians, their advisers were found to be missionaries and land agents from New England. The United States wanted the Indians to remain as states within states; the Georgia and Alabama settlers felt that the Indians must go. The attitude of the Federal government drove the settlers into extreme assertions of state rights. In Georgia it came almost to war between the state and United States troops during the administration of John Quincy Adams, a New Englander, who was disliked by the settlers for his support of the Indian cause; and the whole South was made jealous by the decisions of the Supreme Court in the Indian cases. Had Adams been elected to a second term, there would probably have been armed resistance to the policy of the United States. Jackson, a southern and western man, had the feeling of a frontiersman toward the Indians; and his attitude gained him the support of the frontier southern states in the trouble with South Carolina over nullification. GAINESWOOD. A Marengo County Plantation Home. Abandoned since the War. Immediately after the nullification troubles, the general government attempted to remove the white settlers from the Indian lands in east Alabama. The lands had been ceded by the Indians in 1832, and the legislature of Alabama at once extended the state administration over the territory. Settlers rushed in; some were already there. But by the treaty the Indians were entitled to remain on their land until they chose to move; and now the United States marshals, supported by the army, were ordered to remove the 30,000 whites who had settled in the nine Indian counties. Governor Gayle, who had been elected as an opponent of nullification, informed the Secretary of War that the proposed action of the central government meant nothing less than the destruction of the state administration, and declared that he would, at all costs, sustain the jurisdiction of the state government. The troops killed a citizen who resisted removal, and the Federal authorities refused to allow the slayers to be tried by state courts. There was great excitement in the state, and public meetings were everywhere held to organize resistance. The legislature authorized the governor to persist in maintaining the state administration in the nine Indian counties. A collision with the United States troops was expected, and offers of volunteers were made to the governor,— even from New York. Finally the United States government yielded, the whites remained on the Indian lands, the state authority was upheld in the Indian counties, the soldiers were tried before state courts, and the Indians were removed to the West. The governor proclaimed a victory for the state, and the 30,000 angry Alabamians rejoiced over what they considered the defeat of the unjust Federal government.[4] Thus in Alabama nullification of Federal law was successfully carried out. And it was done by a state administration and a people that a year before had refused to approve the course of South Carolina. But South Carolina was regarded in Alabama, as in the rest of the South, somewhat as an erratic member that ought to be disciplined once in a while. A strong and able minority in Alabama accepted the basis of the nullification doctrine, i.e. the sovereignty of the states, and after this time this political element was usually known as the State Rights party. They had no separate organization, but voted with Whigs or Democrats, as best served their purpose. Secession was little talked of, for affairs might yet go well, they thought, within the Union. A majority of the Democrats, for several years after 1832, were probably opposed in theory to nullification and secession when South Carolina was an actor, but in practice they acted as they had done in the Indian disputes which concerned them more closely. The Slavery Controversy and Political Divisions It was at the height of the irritation of the Indian controversy that the agitation by the abolitionists of the North began. The question which more than any other alienated the southern people from the Union was that concerning negro slavery. From 1819 to 1860 the majority of the white people of Alabama were not friendly to slavery as an institution. This was not from any special liking for the negro or belief that slavery was bad for him, but because it was believed that the presence of the negro, slave or free, was not good for the white race. To most of the people slavery was merely a device for making the best of a bad state of affairs. The constitution of 1819 was liberal in its slavery provisions, and the legislature soon enacted (1827) a law prohibiting the importation, for sale, hire, or barter, of slaves from other states. For a decade there was strong influence at each session of the state legislature [Pg 8] [Pg 9] [Pg 10] in favor of gradual emancipation; agents of the Quakers worked in the state, buying and paying a higher price for cotton that was not produced by slave labor; and in north Alabama, during the twenties and early thirties, there was a number of emancipation societies.[5] An emancipation newspaper, The Huntsville Democrat, was published in Huntsville, and edited by James G. Birney, afterwards a noted abolitionist. The northern section of the state, embracing the strong Democratic white counties, was distinctly unfriendly to slavery, or rather to the negro, and controlled the politics of the state.[6] The effect of the abolition movement in the North was the destruction of the emancipation organizations in the South, and both friends and foes of the institution united on the defensive. The non-slaveholders were not deluded followers of the slave owners. After the slavery question became an issue in politics, the non-slaveholders in Alabama were rather more aggressive, and were even more firmly determined to maintain negro slavery than were the slaveholders. To the rich hereditary slaveholders, who were relatively few in number, it was more or less a question of property, and that was enough to fight about at any time. But to the average white man who owned no negroes and who worked for his living at manual labor, the question was a vital social one. The negro slave was bad enough; but he thought that the negro freed by outside interference and turned loose on society was much more to be feared.[7] The large majorities for extreme measures came from the white counties; the secession vote in 1860 was largely a white county vote. But when secession came, the Whiggish Black Belt which had been opposed to secession was astonished not to receive, in the war that followed, the hearty support of the Democratic white counties. Before the nullification troubles in 1832 there was no distinct political division among the people of Alabama; all were Democrats. Those of the white counties were of the Jacksonian type, those of the black counties were rather of the Jeffersonian faith; but all were strict constructionists, especially on questions concerning the tariff, the Indians, the central government, and slavery. The question of nullification caused a division in the ranks of the Democratic party—one wing supporting Jackson, the other accepting Calhoun as leader. For several years later, however, the Democratic candidates had no opposition in the elections, though within the party there were contests between the Jacksonians and the growing State Rights (Calhoun) wing. But with the settling of the country, the growth of the power of the Black Belt, and the differentiation of interests within the state, there appeared a second party, the Whigs. Its strength lay among the large planters and slaveholders of the central Black Belt, though it often took its leaders from the black counties of the Tennessee valley. This party was able to elect a governor but once, and then only because of a division in the Democratic ranks. After 1835 it secured one-third of the representation in Congress and the same proportion in the legislature. It was the “broadcloth” party, of the wealthier and more cultivated people. It did not appeal to the “plain people” with much success; but it was always a respectable party, and there was no jealousy of it then, and now “there are no bitter memories against it.”[8] Numerically, the Whigs were about as strong as the anti-nullification wing of the Democratic party, so that the balance of power was held by the constantly increasing State Rights (Calhoun) element. When Van Buren became leader of the national Democracy, the State Rights people in Alabama united with the regular Democrats and voted with them for about ten years. The State Rights men were devoted followers of Calhoun, but in political theories they soon went beyond him. For a while they were believers in nullification as a constitutional right, but soon began to talk of secession as a sovereign right. They were in favor of no compromise where the rights of the South were concerned. They were logical, extreme, doctrinaire; they demanded absolute right, and viewed every action of the central government with suspicion. A single idea firmly held through many years gave to them a power not justified by their numerical strength. The Whigs did not stand still on political questions; as the Democrats and the State Rights men abandoned one position for another more advanced, the Whigs moved up to the one abandoned. Thus they were always only about one election behind. It was the constant agitation of the slavery question that drove the Whigs along in the wake of the more advanced party. Both parties were in favor of expansion in the Southwest. They were indignant at the New England position on the Texas question, and talked much of disunion if such a policy of obstruction was persisted in. Again, after the Mexican War all parties were furious at the opposition shown to the annexation of the territory from Mexico. It was now the spirit of expansion, the lust for territory, that rose in opposition to the obstructive policy of northern leaders; and a new element was added when an attempt was made to shut out southerners from the territory won mainly by the South by forbidding the entrance of slavery. The number of those in favor of resisting at every point the growing desire of the North to restrict slavery was increasing steadily. The leader of the State Rights men was William L. Yancey. He opposed all compromises, for, as he said, compromise meant that the system was evil and was an acknowledgment of wrong, and no right, however abstract, must be denied to the South. He was a firm believer in slavery as the only method of solving the race question, and saw clearly the dangers that would result from the abolition programme if the North and South remained united. So to prevent worse calamities he was in favor of disunion. He was the greatest orator ever heard in the South. He was in no sense a demagogue; he had none of the arts of the popular politician. Sent to Congress in the heat of the fight between the sections, he resigned because he thought the battle was to be fought elsewhere. For twenty years he stood before the people of Alabama, telling them that slavery could not be preserved within the Union; that before any effective settlement of controversies could be made, Alabama and the other southern states must withdraw and make terms from the outside, or stay out of the Union and have done with agitation and interference. Secession was self-preservation, he told a people who believed that the destruction of slavery meant the destruction of society. For twenty years he and his followers, heralds of the [Pg 11] [Pg 12] [Pg 13]