Civil Engineering Structures According to the Eurocodes Series Editor Gilles Pijaudier-Cabot Civil Engineering Structures According to the Eurocodes Inspection and Maintenance Xavier Lauzin First published 2017 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address: ISTE Ltd John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 27-37 St George’s Road 111 River Street London SW19 4EU Hoboken, NJ 07030 UK USA www.iste.co.uk www.wiley.com © ISTE Ltd 2017 The rights of Xavier Lauzin to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Library of Congress Control Number: 2017939369 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-78630-186-4 Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Chapter 1. Inspection of Structures: Methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1. Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1.1. General information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1.2. Regulatory documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.1.3. Human resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.1.4. Material resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.1.5. The project file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.1.6. How an inspection is carried out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.1.7. The inspection report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.1.8. Points to look out for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.1.9. Classification example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.2. Structures for the retention and transportation of liquids . . . . . . . . . 11 1.2.1. General information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.2.2. Regulatory documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.2.3. Human resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.2.4. The material means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 1.2.5. The project file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 1.2.6. How the inspection is carried out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 1.2.7. The inspection report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1.2.8. Points to look out for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 1.3. Storage structures for petroleum products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 1.3.1. General information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 1.3.2. How the inspection is carried out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 1.3.3. Specificities for this type of structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 1.3.4. Points to look out for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 vi Civil Engineering Structures According to the Eurocodes 1.4. Maritime structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 1.4.1. General information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 1.4.2. Principles of the CSV method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 1.4.3. Determination of the strategic index SI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 1.4.4. Frequency of visits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 1.4.5. Defining the priorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 1.4.6. Summary of the CSV method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 1.4.7. Points to look out for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 1.5. Silos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 1.5.1. General information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 1.5.2. Reminder on the regulations for the mechanical operation of silos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 1.5.3. Principle of inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 1.5.4. Follow-up file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 1.5.5. Inspection procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 1.5.6. The inspection report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 1.5.7. Points to look out for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 1.6. Gantry, metal hanger and high masts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 1.6.1. General information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 1.6.2. Principle of inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 1.6.3. The inspection report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 1.6.4. Points to look out for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Chapter 2. Concept of Resistance of Materials: Application to Reinforced Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 2.1. General information on reinforced concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 2.2. Concrete material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 2.2.1. Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 2.2.2. Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 2.2.3. Mixing water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 2.2.4. Admixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 2.2.5. Mechanical properties of concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 2.2.6. Eurocode 2 provisions for concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 2.3. Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 2.3.1. The mechanical properties of steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 2.3.2. Steel-concrete bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 2.4. Concept of strength of materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 2.4.1. Compression/traction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 2.4.2. Pure flexion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 2.4.3. Shear stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 2.4.4. Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Contents vii Chapter 3. Pathology of Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 3.1. Pathology of concrete structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 3.1.1. Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 3.1.2. The degradation of concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 3.2. The pathology of masonry structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 3.2.1. General information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 3.2.2. Major disorders that may affect masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 3.3. The pathology of composite material structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 3.3.1. General information on composite materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 3.3.2. Main pathologies of composite materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Chapter 4. Techniques for Repairing Civil Engineering Works . . . 161 4.1. Repair of concrete structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 4.1.1. The glued metal plates technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 4.1.2. The technique of glued composite fabrics or plates . . . . . . . . . . 170 4.1.3. The technique of additional prestressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 4.1.4. The shotcrete technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 4.1.5. Repair of superficially degraded concretes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 4.2. Protection of concrete structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 4.2.1. Cathodic protection of reinforcements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 4.3. Underground recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 4.3.1. Principle of the technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 4.3.2. Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 4.3.3. Principle for sizing of reinforcements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 4.3.4. Implementation of reinforcements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Chapter 5. Inspection and Maintenance of Structures in the United States: Methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 5.1. Engineering structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 5.1.1. General information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 5.1.2. Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 5.1.3. Human resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 5.1.4. Material resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 5.1.5. The inspection report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 5.1.6. Points to look out for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 5.2. Storage structures for petroleum products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 5.2.1. General information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 5.2.2. Inspection procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 5.2.3. Points to look out for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 viii Civil Engineering Structures According to the Eurocodes Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Appendix 1. Examples of Diagnosis on a Drinking Water Storage Structure Based on the CEMAGREF Method . . . . . . . . . . 219 Appendix 2. Examples of Diagnosis on a Petroleum Products Storage Tank According to the DT 92 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Appendix 3. Examples of Diagnosis of a Marine Structure Using the CETMEF VSC Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Appendix 4. Inspection Report “Gantries, Metal Hangers and High Masts” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Appendix 5. Measuring Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 Appendix 6. Inspections of Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 Introduction An important factor in the design of new structures and repairs to existing structures is the expected service life. In France, for major civil engineering works such as bridges, this duration is around 100 years (the British even go as far as 120 years). For more modest structures such as water treatment plants, storage silos, etc., this duration was tacitly defined as around 50 years. There are many factors that can influence this: – the nature of the materials used in the construction (masonry, steel, concrete, wood, etc.); – the quality of these materials (high-performance concrete, stainless steel, etc.); – the constructive arrangements used (accumulation of water on metal structures, lack of encapsulation of steel in a reinforced concrete structure, etc.); – quality of the execution (quality of the welding, implementation of concrete, etc.); – monitoring and maintenance. Within the context of the European Regulation for Calculation and Implementation, all these criteria have been taken into account when determining the duration of use of a structure. This means that the design of the structures is obsolete if the maintenance conditions are not respected. x Civil Engineering Structures According to the Eurocodes Let us recall section 2.4 of EN 1990: “2.4 Durability (1) The structure shall be designed such that deterioration over its design working life does not impair the performance of the structure below that intended, having due regard to its environment and the anticipated level of maintenance. (2) In order to achieve an adequately durable structure, the following should be taken into account: – the intended or foreseeable use of the structure; – the required design criteria; – the expected environmental conditions; – the composition, properties and performance of the materials and products; – the properties of the soil; – the choice of the structural system; – the shape of members and the structural detailing; – the quality of workmanship, and the level of control; – the particular protective measures; – the intended maintenance during the design working life”. The question also arises for repairs carried out on a structure: what life expectancy should they be given? With regard to new structures, EN 1990 indicates the following durations in Table I.1. Design working Indicative design Examples life category working-life (years) 1 10 Temporary structuresa 2 10–25 Replaceable structural elements, for example rolling beams, supporting devices 3 15–30 Agricultural structures and the like 4 50 Buildings and other structures 5 100 Monumental structures of buildings, bridges and other civil engineering structures aStructures or parts of structures that can be disassembled for reuse should not be considered as temporary. Table I.1. Indicative design working life Introduction xi In the section “Execution of concrete structures”, section 4.1 of EN 13670 also specifies the need for an inspection program: “(5) This standard assumes that the structure after completion is used as intended in the design and submitted to planned inspection and maintenance necessary to achieve the intended design working life and to detect weaknesses or any unexpected behavior”. This requirement implies providing access to the main structural elements at the design level. Examples include: – suspended bridges where replacement of the suspension has not been studied at design stage; – water treatment plants for which it was not possible to empty the tanks (non- bypassable treatment line). It also implies the need for a “state 0” during the reception for new constructions as well as a structure maintenance plan. From this state, the sequence of tasks that is required to guarantee the duration of use of the structures is presented in the figure below: State 0 of structures and maintenance plan Scheduled inspection Diagnosis of structures Strengthening structures and updating the maintenance plan Figure I.1. Sequence of tasks required to guarantee the duration