RubinTerrorTitleHalf.qxd 12/27/2007 3:08 PM Page 2 Chronologies of RubinTerrorTitleHalf.qxd 12/27/2007 3:06 PM Page 1 Chronologies of Barry Rubin and Judith Colp Rubin M .E.Sharpe Armonk, New York London, England Copyright © 2008 by M.E. Sharpe, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission from the publisher, M.E. Sharpe, Inc., 80 Business Park Drive, Armonk, New York 10504. Cover images provided by Getty Images and the following (left to right): Central Press/Stringer/Hulton Archive; Roger Viollet; Stringer; Alex Wong. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Rubin, Barry M. Chronologies of modern terrorism / Barry Rubin and Judith Colp Rubin. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-7656-2047-7 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Terrorism—History—Chronology. 2. Terrorism—History—20th century. 3. Terrorism—History— 21st century. 4. Radicalism. I. Rubin, Judith Colp. II. Title. HV6431.R84 2007 363.32502’02—dc22 2007039657 Printed in the United States of America The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z 39.48-1984. ~ BM (c) 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Contents Introduction vii 1. The Early History of Terrorism as Ideology and Strategy 3 2. Social Revolutionary Terrorism in Europe and North America 33 3. Nationalist Terrorism in Europe and North America 60 4. Social Revolutionary Terrorism in Latin America 103 5. Revolutionaries of Asia and Africa 143 6. Terrorism in the Middle East 176 7. Radical Islamist Terrorism 238 8. Global Jihad, September 11 and Afterwards 307 Glossary 375 Selected Bibliography 381 Index 385 v Introduction Terrorism is a controversial issue and defining it rejected terrorism. It is also the reason that ter- can be confusing. Terrorism is the deliberate tac- rorists themselves have often been considered not tic and strategy of killing civilians or government only morally reprehensible but also incomprehen- officials and detroying a country's infrastructure sible by observers who believe their efforts will by groups seeking political power. As a politi- inevitably fail. The problem, of course, is that, cal tool, terrorism has a number of aspects that rightly or wrongly, the terrorists do not agree with have remained remarkably consistent during its that assessment. 200-year-long history as a consciously formulated This book attempts to provide the historical aspect of ideology. These include: background of modern terrorism and provide a representative chronology of terrorist acts from the • A belief that terrorism will encourage broader mid-twentieth century to recent times. Four basic mass support for a movement by increasing types of entries are included: popular contempt for the target and by inspir- ing a belief that a target government cannot • The main events of historical conflicts that re- defend itself and thus can be easily defeated. sulted in many terrorist acts. • A calculation that terrorizing an enemy will • The history of groups that became practi- force him to flee or give up. Terrorist attacks tioners of terrorism, in some cases beginning are thought to be capable of destroying the before they chose such terrorism as a tactic. functioning of a government, economic sys- • Key developments in counterterrorist activity. tem, or society. The response of targeted states and groups will • A belief that if other less extreme means of give the reader a sense of how the wars against bringing change have been frustrated, terror- terrorists were fought and why terrorist groups ist action at least brings a sense of revenge. succeeded or—in most cases—failed. • Confidence that the shock value of terrorist • Specific incidents of terrorism, including action can bring wider interest in and support shootings, assassinations, bombings, kidnap- for the cause. pings, and the like. Such incidents constitute the largest number of entries. From the wide What is especially striking is the fact that ter- variety of actions in many times and places, rorism has not been a very successful strategy the reader can follow its changing scope and in bringing significant change compared to such intensity. alternatives as mass organizing, mutual conces- sions to achieve a peaceful resolution, democratic It should be mentioned that governments have competition, constructive socio-economic develop- committed many actions that could be equated with ment, or even warfare against national military terrorism, most notably the Fascist and Communist forces. That is the reason conventional Marxism regimes of the twentieth century, but such acts are vii viii INTRODUCTION better considered in the category of state repression, during this period, anarchists carried out assassina- a factor that makes no judgment about their relative tions of leaders and public officials in the hope of justness. The possession of state power leads to acts eradicating government altogether. that differ both qualitatively and quantitatively— In the late 1960s and the 1970s, new revolution- jailing, torture, confiscation of assets, imprison- ary movements arose, shaped by a generation that ment, exile, and the like. Instances of state repres- believed older radical forces, including Communist sion could clearly fill another book as voluminous or parties and Arab nationalist regimes, had failed. In more so than this one. For these reasons, they are many places, terrorist groups emerged from these not included here. At the same time, some of the ter- movements. In Europe, there were social revo- rorist acts described in this book may have received lutionary movements in Italy and Germany and secret government support, and many more likely nationalist revolutionary upsurges in Ireland and received a government’s tacit approval in overt or among the Basques of Spain. In the United States, covert operations against enemies or rivals. terrorist acts were committed by social revolution- aries hoping to foment revolution and by African- American and Puerto Rican nationalist groups. Classifying Terrorist Groups In Latin America, almost every country had a Marxist-Leninist social revolutionary group that Terrorism can be divided into two basic catego- used terrorism as a part of its strategy. Asia also ries. Social revolutionary terrorism seeks to trans- had such movements, notably in the Philippines form a society according to some ideological plan. and India. But there were also nationalist move- Social revolutionary terrorism reached an apex in ments among ethnic groups in India (notably Russia during the half century leading up to the Sikhs) and among Muslims focusing on Kashmir. 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, which established a Within Africa, terrorism became an important fac- Communist regime in place of the czarist empire. tor, most notably in Rwanda, where it helped cause Similarly, contemporary Islamist terrorists fight a campaign of populist genocide. to establish Islamist governments in target states. The Middle East became a particular hotbed of Nationalist terrorism is the effort of an ethnic terrorism in the 1960s in part because states were or religious community to take over a state or to energetic sponsors of such activities to attack or sub- gain independence from one. Nationalist terrorism vert their neighbors. The most prominent target was reached its most comprehensive form in Ireland in Israel, the Jewish state established in 1948. Among the late 1800s and early 1900s, during that country’s the main state sponsors of aggression at various long struggle against British rule. More recently, for times were Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Libya, and Syria; Saudi example, the Tamil people in Sri Lanka have used Arabia and Kuwait were among the main financiers. terrorism in their struggle to gain autonomy and On the Middle East’s eastern frontier, Afghanistan concessions from the majority Sinhalese. and Pakistan followed similar policies. In addition, the practice of terrorism can be In North America and Europe (excepting the divided into several clear eras. Terrorism became nationalist movements among the Basques of Spain a distinct doctrine in the French Revolution of the and in Northern Ireland), terrorist groups—always 1790s, justified as a way to transform society by quite small—were largely eliminated by the 1980s. destroying or intimidating rivals and mobilizing In Latin America there was some decline, although supporters. During the late 1800s, the ideologies revolutionary terrorism continued in Colombia and of anarchism and Marxism included terror as part especially in Peru. In Africa, terrorism remained a of their arsenal of tactics in bringing about social sporadic phenomenon. revolution. In Asia, in Sri Lanka and especially in Kashmir, In the mid-1800s, Russian oppositionists devel- conflicts involving terrorism continued at rela- oped the idea of the professional revolutionary tively higher levels than elsewhere, in the latter who would devote his life to revolution above any case fueled by Islamist-inspired terrorism exported personal interests, family life, or moral consider- by Afghanistan under the Taliban regime and by ations. Many held that glorious revolutionary aims Pakistan. This new wave of terror also inspired ter- justified a wide range of violent actions, including rorist acts in the southern Philippines, Indonesia, bombings, hostage-taking, and assassinations. Also Thailand, and occasionally China. INTRODUCTION ix From the 1980s onward, Islamist ideology seized gration of Western societies greatly reduced the center stage in the world of terrorism. At first, potential for nationalist movements compared to the main emphasis was the direct taking of power earlier eras, but significant violence occurred over through Islamist revolutions, notably in Algeria, long periods in Ireland and in Spain. In Ireland, Egypt, and Lebanon. These insurgencies were main- terrorism began as a tactic against British rule ly defeated, though they did not come to an end. and played a role in the establishment of the Irish Failure to take power in these instances led to the Free State in 1921. It soon broke out again in dis- development of a new variety or at least strategy putes about the status of Northern Ireland, which of Islamist terrorism, Jihadism, which targeted the remained under British tutelage with the support West—especially the United States—rather than of its largely Protestant population. From the Arab regimes and Israel. The Jihadist attacks on the mid-1960s to the mid-1990s, hundreds of civilians United States on September 11, 2001, appeared to were killed by the anti-British Irish Republican show the way for future terrorist movements, but Army (IRA) and pro-British Protestant groups. In they also provoked a strong counterattack by the Spain, some Basques in the country’s northwest United States and by many of its allies in Western region sought greater autonomy from the central Europe. Osama bin Laden’s al-Qaeda movement government. The extreme terrorist wing of the survived but suffered serious damage. Security in Basque movement carried out a long series of the West increased, and many terrorist cadres were terror attacks, primarily targeting Spanish gov- arrested. Even Jihadist groups began to concentrate ernment officials, but also killing Basque leaders more on carrying out a long-term terrorist war in who opposed the violence and favored a negotiated Muslim nations, for example, in Saudi Arabia and in settlement. Terrorist violence also afflicted Turkey, Iraq, after the fall of Saddam Hussein. where Kurds in the eastern provinces carried on a terrorist campaign against the Turkish govern- ment, seeking an independent Kurdish state. Organization In Latin America, covered in chapter 4, rad- ical movements were almost exclusively social Chapter 1 outlines the origins and early devel- revolutionary. During the 1960s and 1970s, they opment of modern terrorism, from the French developed a new revolutionary strategy in which Revolution to the success of the Russian Revolution elements of twentieth-century guerrilla warfare in 1917. The remaining chapters focus on terrorism were combined with nineteenth-century terrorist in different parts of the world, providing chronolo- tactics. Depending on the time, group, and country, gies for separate regions. emphasis was placed on urban or rural areas. This Chapter 2 looks at social revolutionary terrorism strategy failed repeatedly but was revived from in Europe and the United States. This is the pur- time to time. Revolutionary leaders often identi- est continuation of nineteenth-century terrorism, fied the United States as the main culprit in their administering violent shocks on a country to try countries’ troubles and targeted representatives to break down its system. Violence by revolution- of U.S. business and government for retribution. ary social groups in these regions was sporadic and Terrorist activity culminated in the creation of the never seriously threatened the governments or soci- Shining Path (Sendero Luminoso), the organization eties of these mature states, but it often received in Peru that gained control of parts of that country extensive publicity through media news coverage, and threatened at one point to overturn its govern- which sometimes succeeded in giving terrorist acts ment before being at least partly defeated. Latin large symbolic significance even when the num- American regimes reacted to terrorist threats with ber of people affected was small. Among the most special vigor. Thousands of revolutionaries and prominent groups were the Black Panthers and their sympathizers disappeared, presumably killed the Weather Underground in the United States; by government forces or by “death squads,” who the Red Army Faction, or RAF, in Germany (also wore no uniforms but often received secret govern- known as the Baader-Meinhof Gang); and the Red ment support. Brigades in Italy. Chapter 5 presents terrorist activity in Asia and Chapter 3 looks at Western nationalist groups Africa. Many radical groups took their inspiration that have resorted to terrorism. The general inte- from Maoist techniques used during the Chinese x INTRODUCTION Communist revolution. Where Mao’s movement had troops to support the regime and was drawn into a a strong social revolutionary component, however, long, bitter war with Afghan partisans. Afghanistan many of these later Asian and African movements became the battleground on which militant Islamists concentrated on local issues and were more nation- learned to fight. Later, Afghanistan would welcome alist than social revolutionary. India, in particular, terrorist organizer Osama bin Laden to set up faced challenges from a number of ethno-religious training camps for his al-Qaeda organization. By minorities seeking independence or broad autonomy. the 1990s, Islamist thought and terrorist tactics Among these groups were Sikhs in northwest India, were fueling Muslim radicals against Indian rule Muslims in Jammu and Kashmir, and a variety of in Kashmir, Chechen nationalists seeking inde- tribal peoples on the country’s northeastern border pendence from Russia, and separatist Muslims in with Bangladesh. Just off India’s coast in Sri Lanka, the Philippines. Al-Qaeda began a series of attacks terrorism was a part of a long, brutal campaign against Western nations, including the planting of a by the Tamils to gain autonomy from the major- bomb in an underground garage of the World Trade ity Sinhalese. Muslims in the southern Philippines, Center in New York City in 1993. through what constituted both an Islamist and The threat of Islamist terrorism received full world- nationalist revolt, also sought autonomy. wide recognition only after September 11, 2001, when In Africa, terror tactics were often part of violent al-Qaeda suicide teams hijacked four U.S. passenger conflicts between tribal groups. In Rwanda, when a airliners and crashed three of them into landmarks group of radicals of the Hutu people gained power in New York City and Washington, D.C. The image in 1994, Hutus went on a rampage against the of two of the World Trade Center towers, 107 stories Tutsis, who had dominated the government in the tall, in flames brought cheers from radical Muslims past. Nearly a million Tutsis and moderate Hutus and anti-Americans around the world. About 3,000 were killed. Elsewhere in Africa, terrorist tactics people died in the attacks. were adopted by the Lord’s Resistance Army, an Chapter 8 begins with the 9/11 attack and pro- extreme Christian group, in Uganda. vides a chronology of later Islamist attacks. It also In the latter half of the twentieth century and the traces the response of the United States and its first years of the twenty-first, the most important allies. Weeks after the attack, the alliance invaded development in terrorist activity was the rise of Afghanistan, removed the Taliban government, and Islamist groups as advocates and practitioners of began pursuing bin Laden and his lieutenants. In nationalist terrorist philosophy in the Middle East. April 2003, the United States invaded Iraq, nam- The final three chapters of the book describe Islamist ing that nation and its president, Saddam Hussein, terror in three different settings and periods. as targets in the “War on Terror.” Once again, the Chapter 6 discusses terrorism in the Middle attack succeeded in removing the regime from East. With the establishment of the Jewish state power, but establishing an effective replacement of Israel in 1948, Palestinian nationalists sought government was a more difficult task. In the mean- to overturn this outcome and replace Israel with time, Islamist radicals flocked to Iraq to adapt their a Palestinian Arab state. Terrorism was a cen- insurgency and terrorist skills to a war against the tral part of their strategy. And as the nationalist United States. Iraq became a training ground for group, the Palestine Liberation Organization led terrorist insurgency just as Afghanistan had been by Fatah, and Arab nationalist-led states expe- during the Soviet-Afghan war. rienced defeats, Islamist ideology spread both Thus, the structure of the book facilitates exami- among Palestinians, in the form of the rise of nation of the phenomenon of terrorism by region, Hamas, and in Arab countries. historical period, and type of movement. Readers Chapter 7 follows the development of the Islamist can also use the book to search for specific events, movement, which became an incubator for terrorist trace the path of terrorism in individual countries, or activity. Islamists first gained political power in Iran, look at the role of individual groups. Given the broad where they helped to overthrow the monarchy with range and volume of material covered, the intention a regime led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. is to facilitate and encourage further research. At nearly the same time, the Communist gov- We would like to thank Yeru Aharoni, Joy Pincus, ernment of neighboring Afghanistan was besieged Carmen Galvan, and Sarah Cattan for research by an Islamist opposition. The Soviet Union sent assistance on this project.