The Project Gutenberg eBook, Christmas: Its Origin and Associations, by William Francis Dawson This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: Christmas: Its Origin and Associations Together with Its Historical Events and Festive Celebrations During Nineteen Centuries Author: William Francis Dawson Release Date: July 10, 2007 [eBook #22042] Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 ***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHRISTMAS: ITS ORIGIN AND ASSOCIATIONS*** E-text prepared by Robert Cicconetti, Turgut Dincer, and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) BRINGING IN THE YULE LOG. BRINGING IN THE YULE LOG. Frontispiece. CHRISTMAS: ITS ORIGIN AND ASSOCIATIONS, TOGETHER WITH ITS HISTORICAL EVENTS AND FESTIVE CELEBRATIONS DURING NINETEEN CENTURIES: DEPICTING, BY PEN AND PENCIL, MEMORABLE CELEBRATIONS, STATELY MEETINGS OF EARLY KINGS, REMARKABLE EVENTS, ROMANTIC EPISODES, BRAVE DEEDS, PICTURESQUE CUSTOMS, TIME-HONOURED SPORTS, ROYAL CHRISTMASES, CORONATIONS AND ROYAL MARRIAGES, CHIVALRIC FEATS, COURT BANQUETINGS AND REVELLINGS, CHRISTMAS AT THE COLLEGES AND THE INNS OF COURT, POPULAR FESTIVITIES, AND CHRISTMAS-KEEPING IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD, DERIVED FROM THE MOST AUTHENTIC SOURCES, AND ARRANGED CHRONOLOGICALLY. BY W. F. DAWSON. At home, at sea, in many distant lands, This Kingly Feast without a rival stands! LONDON ELLIOT STOCK, 62, PATERNOSTER ROW, E.C. 1902. REPUBLISHED BY GALE RESEARCH COMPANY, BOOK TOWER, DETROIT, 1968 ORNAMENT PREFACE. In the third quarter of the nineteenth century, it fell to my lot to write an article on Christmas, its customs and festivities. And, although I sought in vain for a chronological account of the festival, I discovered many interesting details of its observances dispersed in the works of various authors; and, while I found that some of its greater celebrations marked important epochs in our national history, I saw, also, that the successive celebrations of Christmas during nineteen centuries were important links in the chain of historical Christian evidences. I became enamoured of the subject, for, in addition to historical interest, there is the charm of its legendary lore, its picturesque customs, and popular games. It seemed to me that the origin and hallowed associations of Christmas, its ancient customs and festivities, and the important part it has played in history combine to make it a most fascinating subject. I resolved, therefore, to collect materials for a larger work on Christmas. Henceforth, I became a snapper-up of everything relating to Christmastide, utilised every opportunity of searching libraries, bookstalls, and catalogues of books in different parts of the country, and, subsequently, as a Reader of the British Museum Library, had access to that vast storehouse of literary and historical treasures. Soon after commencing the work, I realised that I had entered a very spacious field of research, and that, having to deal with the accumulated materials of nineteen centuries, a large amount of labour would be involved, and some years must elapse before, even if circumstances proved favourable, I could hope to see the end of my task. Still, I went on with the work, for I felt that a complete account of Christmas, ancient and modern, at home and abroad, would prove generally acceptable, for while the historical events and legendary lore would interest students and antiquaries, the holiday sports and popular celebrations would be no less attractive to general readers. The love of story-telling seems to be ingrained in human nature. Travellers tell of vari-coloured races sitting round their watch fires reciting deeds of the past; and letters from colonists show how, even amidst forest-clearing, they have beguiled their evening hours by telling or reading stories as they sat in the glow of their camp fires. And in old England there is the same love of tales and stories. One of the chief delights of Christmastide is to sit in the united family circle and hear, tell, or read about the quaint habits and picturesque customs of Christmas in the olden time; and one of the purposes of CHRISTMAS is to furnish the retailer of Christmas wares with suitable things for re-filling his pack. From the vast store of materials collected it is not possible to do more than make a selection. How far I have succeeded in setting forth the subject in a way suited to the diversity of tastes among readers I must leave to their judgment and indulgence; but I have this satisfaction, that the gems of literature it contains are very rich indeed; and I acknowledge my great indebtedness to numerous writers of different periods whose references to Christmas and its time-honoured customs are quoted. I have to acknowledge the courtesy of Mr. Henry Jewitt, Mr. E. Wiseman, Messrs. Harper, and Messrs. Cassell & Co., in allowing their illustrations to appear in this work. My aim is neither critical nor apologetic, but historical and pictorial: it is not to say what might or ought to have been, but to set forth from extant records what has actually taken place: to give an account of the origin and hallowed associations of Christmas, and to depict, by pen and pencil, the important historical events and interesting festivities of Christmastide during nineteen centuries. With materials collected from different parts of the world, and from writings both ancient and modern, I have endeavoured to give in the present work a chronological account of the celebrations and observances of Christmas from the birth of Christ to the end of the nineteenth century; but, in a few instances, the subject-matter has been allowed to take precedence of the chronological arrangement. Here will be found accounts of primitive celebrations of the Nativity, ecclesiastical decisions fixing the date of Christmas, the connection of Christmas with the festivals of the ancients, Christmas in times of persecution, early celebrations in Britain, stately Christmas meetings of the Saxon, Danish, and Norman kings of England; Christmas during the wars of the Roses, Royal Christmases under the Tudors, the Stuarts and the Kings and Queens of Modern England; Christmas at the Colleges and the Inns of Court; Entertainments of the nobility and gentry, and popular festivities; accounts of Christmas celebrations in different parts of Europe, in America and Canada, in the sultry lands of Africa and the ice-bound Arctic coasts, in India and China, at the Antipodes, in Australia and New Zealand, and in the Islands of the Pacific; in short, throughout the civilised world. In looking at the celebrations of Christmas, at different periods and in different places, I have observed that, whatever views men hold respecting Christ, they all agree that His Advent is to be hailed with joy, and the nearer the forms of festivity have approximated to the teaching of Him who is celebrated the more real has been the joy of those who have taken part in the celebrations. The descriptions of the festivities and customs of different periods are given, as far as possible, on the authority of contemporary authors, or writers who have special knowledge of those periods, and the most reliable authorities have been consulted for facts and dates, great care being taken to make the work as accurate and trustworthy as possible. I sincerely wish that all who read it may find as much pleasure in its perusal as I have had in its compilation. william francis dawson. WINTER SCENE. CONTENTS CHAPTER I. PAGE THE ORIGIN AND ASSOCIATIONS OF CHRISTMAS 5 CHAPTER II. THE EARLIER CELEBRATIONS OF THE FESTIVAL 10 CHAPTER III. EARLY CHRISTMAS CELEBRATIONS IN BRITAIN 23 CHAPTER IV. CHRISTMAS, FROM THE NORMAN CONQUEST TO MAGNA CHARTA 40 CHAPTER V. CHRISTMAS, FROM MAGNA CHARTA TO THE END OF THE WARS OF THE ROSES 62 (A.D. 1215-1485.) CHAPTER VI. CHRISTMAS UNDER HENRY VII. AND HENRY VIII. 94 (A.D. 1485-1547.) CHAPTER VII. CHRISTMAS UNDER EDWARD VI., MARY, AND ELIZABETH 115 (A.D. 1547-1603.) CHAPTER VIII. CHRISTMAS UNDER JAMES I. 151 (A.D. 1603-1625.) CHAPTER IX. CHRISTMAS UNDER CHARLES THE FIRST AND THE COMMONWEALTH 197 (A.D. 1625-1660.) CHAPTER X. CHRISTMAS, FROM THE RESTORATION TO THE DEATH OF GEORGE II. 215 (A.D. 1660-1760.) CHAPTER XI. MODERN CHRISTMASES AT HOME 240 CHAPTER XII. MODERN CHRISTMASES ABROAD 294 CHAPTER XIII. CONCLUDING CAROL SERVICE OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 349 INDEX 351 ORNAMENT ORNAMENT LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE BRINGING IN THE YULE LOG Frontispiece THE HERALD ANGELS 2 VIRGIN AND CHILD 5 JOSEPH TAKING MARY TO BE TAXED, AND THE NATIVITY EVENTS 6 THE NATIVITY (Central portion of Picture in National Gallery) 8 VIRGIN AND CHILD (Relievo) 9 GROUP FROM THE ANGELS' SERENADE 10 ADORATION OF THE MAGI (From Pulpit of Pisa) 11 "THE INNS ARE FULL" 14 GRAPE GATHERING AND THE VINTAGE (Mosaic in the Church of St. Constantine, Rome, A.D. 320) 16 GERMAN NINTH CENTURY PICTURE OF THE NATIVITY 16 ANCIENT ROMAN ILLUSTRATIONS 17 ANCIENT ROMAN ILLUSTRATIONS 18 ANCIENT AGAPE 19 ANCIENT ROMAN ILLUSTRATIONS 21 EARLY CELEBRATIONS IN BRITAIN 23 QUEEN BERTHA 27 AN ANCIENT FIREPLACE 30 TRAVELING IN THE OLDEN TIME, WITH A "CHRISTMAS FOOL: ON THE FRONT SEAT 31 THE WILD BOAR HUNT: KILLING THE BOAR 32 ADORATION OF THE MAGI (Picture of Stained Glass, Winchester Cathedral) 34 A KING AT DINNER 40 BLIND MINSTREL AT A FEAST 42 MINSTRELS' CHRISTMAS SERENADE AT AN OLD BARONIAL HALL 44 WESTMINSTER HALL 46 STRANGE OLD STORIES ILLUSTRATED (From Harl. MS.) 50 A COOK OF THE PERIOD (Early Norman) 55 MONK UNDERGOING DISCIPLINE 56 WASSAILING AT CHRISTMASTIDE 57 PANOPLY OF A CRUSADER 58 ROYAL PARTY DINING IN STATE 63 LADIES LOOKING FROM THE HUSTINGS UPON THE TOURNAMENT 73 THE LORD OF MISRULE 74 CURIOUS CUTS OF PRIESTLY PLAYERS IN THE OLDEN TIME 76 A COURT FOOL 77 VIRGIN AND CHILD (Florentine, 1480. South Kensington Museum) 83 HENRY VI.'S CRADLE 84 LADY MUSICIAN OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 91 RUSTIC CHRISTMAS MINSTREL WITH PIPE AND TABOR 92 MARTIN LUTHER AND THE CHRISTMAS TREE 106 THE LITTLE ORLEANS MADONNA OF RAPHAEL 107 MAGDALEN COLLEGE, OXFORD 110 BRINGING IN THE BOAR'S HEAD WITH MINSTRELSY 111 VIRGIN AND CHILD, CHIRBURY, SHROPSHIRE 118 RIDING A-MUMMING AT CHRISTMASTIDE 121 A DUMB SHOW IN THE TIME OF ELIZABETH 123 THE FOOL OF THE OLD PLAY (From a Print by Breughel) 137 THE ACTING OF ONE OF SHAKESPEARE'S PLAYS IN THE TIME OF QUEEN ELIZABETH 141 NEIGHBOURS WITH PIPE AND TABOR 147 CHRISTMAS IN THE HALL 149 THE HOBBY-HORSE 197 SERVANTS' CHRISTMAS FEAST 202 "THE HACKIN" 216 SEAFARING PILGRIMS 219 AN ANCIENT FIREPLACE 225 A DRUID PRIESTESS BEARING MISTLETOE 228 A NEST OF FOOLS 229 "THE MASK DANCE" 231 THE CHRISTMAS MUMMERS 234 THE WAITS 240 THE CHRISTMAS PLUM-PUDDING 245 ITALIAN MINSTRELS IN LONDON, AT CHRISTMAS, 1825 246 SNAP DRAGON 247 BLINDMAN'S BUFF 249 THE CHRISTMAS DANCE 250 THE GIVING AWAY OF CHRISTMAS DOLES 257 POOR CHILDREN'S TREAT IN MODERN TIMES 265 THE CHRISTMAS BELLS 271 WASSAILING THE APPLE-TREES IN DEVONSHIRE 279 MODERN CHRISTMAS PERFORMERS: YORKSHIRE SWORD-ACTORS 282 MODERN CHRISTMAS CHARACTERS: "ST PETER," "ST. DENYS" 283 A SCOTCH FIRST FOOTING 285 PROVENÇAL PLAYS AT CHRISTMASTIDE 320 NATIVITY PICTURE (From Byzantine Ivory in the British Museum) 324 CALABRIAN SHEPHERDS PLAYING IN ROME AT CHRISTMAS 329 WORSHIPPING THE CHILD JESUS (From a Picture in the Museum at Naples) 337 ANGELS AND MEN WORSHIPPING THE CHILD JESUS (From a Picture in Seville Cathedral) 338 SIMEON RECEIVED THE CHILD JESUS INTO HIS ARMS (From Modern Stained Glass in Bishopsgate Church, London) 348 LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL 349 ORNAMENT THE HERALD ANGELS While shepherds watched their flocks by night, 001 002 All seated on the ground; The angel of the Lord came down, And glory shone around. Carol. THE HERALD ANGELS. Lo! God hath ope'd the glist'ring gates of heaven, And thence are streaming beams of glorious light: All earth is bath'd in the effulgence giv'n To dissipate the darkness of the night. The eastern shepherds, 'biding in the fields, O'erlook the flocks till now their constant care, And light divine to mortal sense reveals A seraph bright descending in the air. Hark! strains seraphic fall upon the ear, From shining ones around th' eternal gates: Glad that man's load of guilt may disappear, Infinite strength on finite weakness waits. Why are the trembling shepherds sore afraid? Why shrink they at the grand, the heavenly sight? "Fear not" (the angel says), nor be dismay'd, And o'er them sheds a ray of God-sent light. O matchless mercy! All-embracing love! The angel speaks and, gladly, men record:— "I bring you joyful tidings from above: This day is born a Saviour, Christ the Lord!" Hark! "Peace on earth, and God's good-will to men!" The angels sing, and heaven resounds with praise— That fallen man may live with God again, Through Christ, who deigns the sons of men to raise. W. F. D CHAPTER I. THE ORIGIN AND ASSOCIATIONS OF CHRISTMAS. The First Christmas: the Advent of Christ. Behold, a virgin shall conceive, And bear a Son, And shall call His name Immanuel. (Isaiah vii. 14.) VIRGIN AND CHILD Now the birth of Jesus Christ was on this wise: When His mother Mary had been betrothed to Joseph, before they came together she was found with child of the Holy Ghost. And Joseph her husband, being a righteous man, and not willing to make her a public example, was minded to put her away privily. But when he thought on these things, behold, an angel of the Lord appeared unto him in a dream, saying, Joseph, thou son of David, fear not to take unto thee Mary thy wife: for that which is conceived in her is of the Holy Ghost. And she shall bring forth a Son; and thou shalt call His 003 004 005 name Jesus; for it is He that shall save His people from their sins. Now all this is come to pass, that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by the Lord through the prophet, saying, Behold, the virgin shall be with child and shall bring forth a Son, And they shall call His name Immanuel; which is, being interpreted, God with us. And Joseph arose from his sleep, and did as the angel of the Lord commanded him, and took unto him his wife; and knew her not till she had brought forth a Son; and he called His name Jesus. (Matthew i. 18-25.) JOSEPH TAKING MARY TO BE TAXED, AND THE NATIVITY EVENTS "THERE WENT OUT A DECREE FROM CÆSAR AUGUSTUS THAT ALL THE WORLD SHOULD BE TAXED. AND JOSEPH WENT TO BE TAXED WITH MARY his espoused wife, being great with child." (Luke ii. 1-5.) And there were shepherds in the same country abiding in the field, and keeping watch by night over their flock. And an angel of the Lord stood by them, and the glory of the Lord shone round about them: and they were sore afraid. And the angel said unto them, Be not afraid; for behold, I bring you good tidings of great joy which shall be to all the people: for there is born to you this day in the city of David a Saviour, which is Christ the Lord. And this is the sign unto you; Ye shall find a babe wrapped in swaddling clothes, and lying in a manger. And suddenly there was with the angel a multitude of the heavenly host praising God, and saying, Glory to God in the highest, 006 007 And on earth peace among men in whom He is well pleased. And it came to pass, when the angels went away from them into heaven, the shepherds said one to another, Let us now go even unto Bethlehem, and see this thing that is come to pass, which the Lord hath made known unto us. And they came with haste, and found both Mary and Joseph, and the Babe lying in the manger. And when they saw it, they made known concerning the saying which was spoken to them about this child. And all that heard it wondered at the things which were spoken unto them by the shepherds. But Mary kept all these sayings, pondering them in her heart. And the shepherds returned, glorifying and praising God for all the things that they had heard and seen, even as it was spoken unto them. (Luke ii. 8-20.) The Place of the Nativity. The evangelist Matthew tells us that "Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judæa in the days of Herod the king;" and Justin Martyr, who was born at Shechem and lived less than a century after the time of Christ, places the scene of the Nativity in a cave. Over this cave has risen the Church and Convent of the Nativity, and there is a stone slab with a star cut in it to mark the spot where the Saviour was born. Dean Farrar, who has been at the place, says: "It is impossible to stand in the little Chapel of the Nativity, and to look without emotion on the silver star let into the white marble, encircled by its sixteen ever-burning lamps, and surrounded by the inscription, 'Hic de Virgine Maria Jesus Christus natus est.'" To visit such a scene is to have the thoughts carried back to the greatest event in the world's history, for it has been truly said that the birth of Christ was the world's second birthday. Now, death is life! and grief is turn'd to joy! Since glory shone on that auspicious morn, When God incarnate came, not to destroy, But man to save and manhood's state adorn! W. F. D. THE NATIVITY (Central portion of Picture in National Gallery) THE NATIVITY BY SANDRO BOTTICELLI. Centre Portion of Picture in National Gallery The Word "Christmas": Its Orthography and Meaning. "Christmas" (pronounced Kris'mas) signifies "Christ's Mass," meaning the festival of the Nativity of Christ, and the word has been variously spelt at different periods. The following are obsolete forms of it found in old English writings: Crystmasse, Cristmes, Cristmas, Crestenmes, Crestenmas, Cristemes, Cristynmes, Crismas, Kyrsomas, Xtemas, Cristesmesse, Cristemasse, Crystenmas, Crystynmas, Chrystmas, Chrystemes, Chrystemasse, Chrystymesse, Cristenmas, Christenmas, Christmass, Christmes. Christmas has also been called Noël or Nowel. As to the derivation of the word Noël, some say it is a contraction of the French nouvelles (tidings), les bonnes nouvelles, that is "The good news of the Gospel"; others take it as an abbreviation of the Gascon or Provençal nadaü, nadal, which means the same as the Latin natalis, that is, dies natalis, "the birthday." In "The Franklin's Tale," Chaucer alludes to "Nowel" as a festive cry at Christmastide: "And 'Nowel' crieth every lusty man." Some say Noël is a corruption of Yule, Jule, or Ule, meaning "The festival of the sun." The name Yule is still applied to the festival in Scotland, and some other places. Christmas is represented in Welsh by Nadolig, which signifies "the natal, or birth"; in French by Noël; and in Italian by Il Natale, which, together with its cognate term in Spanish, is simply a contraction of dies natalis, "the birthday." 008 009 CHRISTMAS: blest Feast of the Nativity! H eaven made thy lowly shrine R esplendent with the gift of the eternal Deity I n whom we live and move, whose large benignity S pared not His Son divine: T hat well-beloved Son by God was given, M ankind to save with His redeeming blood; A nd Jesus freely left the bliss of Heaven, S uffering death, to achieve our lasting good.—W. F. D. VIRGIN AND CHILD (Relievo) VIRGIN AND CHILD (Relievo) CHAPTER II. THE EARLIER CELEBRATIONS OF THE FESTIVAL. The Earlier Celebrations. GROUP FROM THE ANGELS' SERENADE GROUP FROM THE ANGELS' SERENADE, THEODORE MINTROP The Angels' Song has been called the first Christmas Carol, and the shepherds who heard this heavenly song of peace and goodwill, and went "with haste" to the birthplace at Bethlehem, where they "found Mary, and Joseph, and the Babe 010 011 lying in a manger," certainly took part in the first celebration of the Nativity. And the Wise Men, who came afterwards with presents from the East, being led to Bethlehem by the appearance of the miraculous star, may also be regarded as taking part in the first celebration of the Nativity, for the name Epiphany (now used to commemorate the manifestation of the Saviour) did not come into use till long afterwards, and when it was first adopted among the Oriental Churches it was designed to commemorate both the birth and baptism of Jesus, which two events the Eastern Churches believed to have occurred on January 6th. Whether the shepherds commemorated the Feast of the Nativity annually does not appear from the records of the Evangelists; but it is by no means improbable that to the end of their lives they would annually celebrate the most wonderful event which they had witnessed. ADORATION OF THE MAGI (From Pulpit of Pisa) ADORATION OF THE MAGI (RELIEVO.) FROM PULPIT OF PISA-NICOLA:PISANO Within thirty years after the death of our Lord, there were churches in Jerusalem, Cæsarea, Rome, and the Syrian Antioch. In reference to the latter, Bishop Ken beautifully says:— "Fair Antioch the rich, the great, Of learning the imperial seat, You readily inclined, To light which on you shined; It soon shot up to a meridian flame, You first baptized it with a Christian name." Clement, one of the Apostolic Fathers and third Bishop of Rome, who flourished in the first century, says: "Brethren, keep diligently feast-days, and truly in the first place the day of Christ's birth." And according to another of the early Bishops of Rome, it was ordained early in the second century, "that in the holy night of the Nativity of our Lord and Saviour, they do celebrate public church services and in them solemnly sing the Angels' Hymn, because also the same night He was declared unto the shepherds by an angel, as the truth itself doth witness." But, before proceeding further with the historical narrative, it will be well now to make more particular reference to the fixing of the date of the festival. Fixing the Date of Christmas. Whether the 25th of December, which is now observed as Christmas Day, correctly fixes the period of the year when Christ was born is still doubtful, although it is a question upon which there has been much controversy. From Clement of Alexandria it appears, that when the first efforts were made to fix the season of the Advent, there were advocates for the 20th of May, and for the 20th or 21st of April. It is also found that some communities of Christians celebrated the festival on the 1st or 6th of January; others on the 29th of March, the time of the Jewish Passover: while others observed it on the 29th of September, or Feast of Tabernacles. The Oriental Christians generally were of opinion that both the birth and baptism of Christ took place on the 6th of January. Julius I., Bishop of Rome (A.D. 337-352), contended that the 25th of December was the date of Christ's birth, a view to which the majority of the Eastern Church ultimately came round, while the Church of the West adopted from their brethren in the East the view that the baptism was on the 6th of January. It is, at any rate, certain that after St. Chrysostom Christmas was observed on the 25th of December in East and West alike, except in the Armenian Church, which still remains faithful to January 6th. St. Chrysostom, who died in the beginning of the fifth century, informs us, in one of his Epistles, that Julius, on the solicitation of St. Cyril of Jerusalem, caused strict inquiries to be made on the subject, and thereafter, following what seemed to be the best authenticated tradition, settled authoritatively the 25th of December as the anniversary of Christ's birth, the Festorum omnium metropolis, as it is styled by Chrysostom. It may be observed, however, that some have represented this fixing of the day to have been accomplished by St. Telesphorus, who was Bishop of Rome A.D. 127- 139, but the authority for the assertion is very doubtful. There is good ground for maintaining that Easter and its accessory celebrations mark with tolerable accuracy the anniversaries of the Passion and Resurrection of our Lord, because we know that the events themselves took place at the period of the Jewish Passover; but no such precision of date can be adduced as regards Christmas. Dr. Geikie[1] says: "The season at which Christ was born is inferred from the fact that He was six months younger than John, respecting the date of whose birth we have the help of knowing the time of the annunciation during his father's ministrations in Jerusalem. Still, the whole subject is very uncertain. Ewald 011 012 013 appears to fix the date of the birth as five years earlier than our era. Petavius and Usher fix it as on the 25th of December, five years before our era; Bengel, on the 25th of December, four years before our era; Anger and Winer, four years before our era, in the spring; Scaliger, three years before our era, in October; St. Jerome, three years before our era, on December 25th; Eusebius, two years before our era, on January 6th; and Ideler, seven years before our era, in December." Milton, following the immemorial tradition of the Church, says that— "It was the winter wild." But there are still many who think that the 25th of December does not correspond with the actual date of the birth of Christ, and regard the incident of the flocks and shepherds in the open field, recorded by St. Luke, as indicative of spring rather than winter. This incident, it is thought, could not have taken place in the inclement month of December, and it has been conjectured, with some probability, that the 25th of December was chosen in order to substitute the purified joy of a Christian festival for the license of the Bacchanalia and Saturnalia which were kept at that season. It is most probable that the Advent took place between December, 749, of Rome, and February, 750. Dionysius Exiguus, surnamed the Little, a Romish monk of the sixth century, a Scythian by birth, and who died a.d. 556, fixed the birth of Christ in the year of Rome 753, but the best authorities are now agreed that 753 was not the year in which the Saviour of mankind was born. The Nativity is now placed, not as might have been expected, in a.d. 1, but in b.c. 5 or 4. The mode of reckoning by the "year of our Lord" was first introduced by Dionysius, in his "Cyclus Paschalis," a treatise on the computation of Easter, in the first half of the sixth century. Up to that time the received computation of events through the western portion of Christendom had been from the supposed foundation of Rome (b.c. 754), and events were marked accordingly as happening in this or that year, Anno Urbis Conditæ, or by the initial letters A.U.C. In the East some historians continued to reckon from the era of Seleucidæ, which dated from the accession of Seleucus Nicator to the monarchy of Syria, in b.c. 312. The new computation was received by Christendom in the sixth century, and adopted without adequate inquiry, till the sixteenth century. A more careful examination of the data presented by the Gospel history, and, in particular, by the fact that "Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judæa" before the death of Herod, showed that Dionysius had made a mistake of four years, or perhaps more, in his calculations. The death of Herod took place in the year of Rome a.u.c. 750, just before the Passover. This year coincided with what in our common chronology would be b.c. 4—so that we have to recognise the fact that our own reckoning is erroneous, and to fix b.c. 5 or 4 as the date of the Nativity. THE INNS ARE FULL. "THE INNS ARE FULL." Now, out of the consideration of the time at which the Christmas festival is fixed, naturally arises another question, viz.: — The Connection of Christmas with Ancient Festivals. 014 Sir Isaac Newton[2] says the Feast of the Nativity, and most of the other ecclesiastical anniversaries, were originally fixed at cardinal points of the year, without any reference to the dates of the incidents which they commemorated, dates which, by lapse of time, it was impossible to ascertain. Thus the Annunciation of the Virgin Mary was placed on the 25th of March, or about the time of the vernal equinox; the Feast of St. Michael on the 29th of September, or near the autumnal equinox; and the Birth of Christ at the time of the winter solstice. Christmas was thus fixed at the time of the year when the most celebrated festivals of the ancients were held in honour of the return of the sun which at the winter solstice begins gradually to regain power and to ascend apparently in the horizon. Previously to this (says William Sandys, F.S.A.),[3] the year was drawing to a close, and the world was typically considered to be in the same state. The promised restoration of light and commencement of a new era were therefore hailed with rejoicings and thanksgivings. The Saxon and other northern nations kept a festival at this time of the year in honour of Thor, in which they mingled feasting, drinking, and dancing with sacrifices and religious rites. It was called Yule, or Jule, a term of which the derivation has caused dispute amongst antiquaries; some considering it to mean a festival, and others stating that Iol, or Iul (spelt in various ways), is a primitive word, conveying the idea of Revolution or Wheel, and applicable therefore to the return of the sun. The Bacchanalia and Saturnalia of the Romans had apparently the same object as the Yuletide, or feast of the Northern nations, and were probably adopted from some more ancient nations, as the Greeks, Mexicans, Persians, Chinese, &c., had all something similar. In the course of them, as is well known, masters and slaves were supposed to be on an equality; indeed, the former waited on the latter.[4] Presents were mutually given and received, as Christmas presents in these days. Towards the end of the feast, when the sun was on its return, and the world was considered to be renovated, a king or ruler was chosen, with considerable power granted to him during his ephemeral reign, whence may have sprung some of the Twelfth-Night revels, mingled with those in honour of the Manifestation and Adoration of the Magi. And, in all probability, some other Christmas customs are adopted from the festivals of the ancients, as decking with evergreens and mistletoe (relics of Druidism) and the wassail bowl. It is not surprising, therefore, that Bacchanalian illustrations have been found among the decorations in the early Christian Churches. The illustration on the following page is from a mosaic in the Church of St. Constantine, Rome, A.D. 320. GRAPE GATHERING AND THE VINTAGE. GRAPE GATHERING AND THE VINTAGE. MOSAIC IN THE CHURCH OF ST. CONSTANTINE, ROME, A.D. 320. Dr. Cassel, of Germany, an erudite Jewish convert who is little known in this country has endeavoured to show that 015 016 FROM AN IVORY (PART OF BOOK COVER) GERMAN NINTH CENTURY, BRITISH MUSEUM. the festival of Christmas has a Judæan origin. He considers that its customs are significantly in accordance with those of the Jewish festival of the Dedication of the Temple. This feast was held in the winter time, on the 25th of Cisleu (December 20th), having been founded by Judas Maccabæus in honour of the cleansing of the Temple in b.c. 164, six years and a half after its profanation by Antiochus Epiphanes. In connection with Dr. Cassel's theory it may be remarked that the German word Weihnachten (from weihen, "to consecrate, inaugurate," and nacht, "night") leads directly to the meaning, "Night of the Dedication." ANCIENT ROMAN ILLUSTRATIONS. ANCIENT ROMAN ILLUSTRATIONS. In proceeding with our historical survey, then, we must recollect that in the festivities of Christmastide there is a mingling of the Divine with the human elements of society—the establishment and development of a Christian festival on pagan soil and in the midst of superstitious surroundings. Unless this be borne in mind it is impossible to understand some customs connected with the celebration of Christmas. For while the festival commemorates the Nativity of Christ, it also illustrates the ancient practices of the various peoples who have taken part in the commemoration, and not inappropriately so, as the event commemorated is also linked to the past. "Christmas" (says Dean Stanley) "brings before us the relations of the Christian religion to the religions which went before; for the birth at Bethlehem was itself a link with the past. The coming of Jesus Christ was not unheralded or unforeseen. Even in the heathen world there had 017 been anticipations of an event of a character not unlike this. In Plato's Dialogue bright ideals had been drawn of the just man; in Virgil's Eclogues there had been a vision of a new and peaceful order of things. But it was in the Jewish nation that these anticipations were most distinct. That wonderful people in all its history had looked, not backward, but forward. The appearance of Jesus Christ was not merely the accomplishment of certain predictions; it was the fulfilment of this wide and deep expectation of a whole people, and that people the most remarkable in the ancient world." Thus Dean Stanley links Christianity with the older religions of the world, as other writers have connected the festival of Christmas with the festivals of paganism and Judaism. The first Christians were exposed to the dissolute habits and idolatrous practices of heathenism, as well as the superstitious ceremonials of Judaism, and it is in these influences that we must seek the true origin of many of the usages and institutions of Christianity. The old hall of Roman justice and exchange—an edifice expressive of the popular life of Greece and Rome—was not deemed too secular to be used as the first Christian place of worship: pagan statues were preserved as objects of adoration, being changed but in name; names describing the functions of Church officers were copied from the civil vocabulary of the time; the ceremonies of Christian worship were accommodated as far as possible to those of the heathen, that new converts might not be much startled at the change, and at the Christmas festival Christians indulged in revels closely resembling those of the Saturnalia. ANCIENT ROMAN ILLUSTRATIONS. ANCIENT ROMAN ILLUSTRATIONS. Christmas in Times of Persecution. It is known that the Feast of the Nativity was observed as early as the first century, and that it was kept by the primitive Christians even in dark days of persecution. "They wandered in deserts, and in mountains, and in dens and caves of the earth" (Heb. xi. 38). Yet they were faithful to Christ, and the Catacombs of Rome contain evidence that they celebrated the Nativity. The opening up of these Catacombs has brought to light many most interesting relics of primitive Christianity. In these Christian cemeteries and places of worship there are signs not only of the deep emotion and hope with which they buried their dead, but also of their simple forms of worship and the festive joy with which they commemorated the Nativity of Christ. On the rock-hewn tombs these primitive Christians wrote the thoughts that were most consoling to themselves, or painted on the walls the figures which gave them the most pleasure. The subjects of these paintings are for the most part taken from the Bible, and the one which illustrates the earliest and most universal of these pictures, and exhibits their Christmas joy, is "The Adoration of the Magi." Another of these emblems of joyous festivity which is frequently seen, is a vine, with its branches and purple clusters spreading in every direction, reminding us that in Eastern countries the vintage is the great holiday of the year. In the Jewish Church there was no festival so joyous as the Feast of Tabernacles, when they gathered the fruit of the vineyard, and in some of the earlier celebrations of the Nativity these festivities were closely copied. And as all down the ages pagan elements have mingled in the festivities of Christmas, so in the Catacombs they are not absent. There is Orpheus playing on his harp to the beasts; Bacchus as the god of the vintage; Psyche, the butterfly of the soul; the Jordan as the god of the rivers. The classical and the Christian, the Hebrew and the Hellenic elements had not yet parted; and the unearthing of these pictures after the lapse of centuries affords another interesting clue to the origin of some of the customs of Christmastide. It is astonishing how many of the Catacomb decorations are taken from heathen sources and copied from heathen paintings; yet we need not wonder when we reflect that the vine was used by the early Christians as an emblem of gladness, and it was scarcely possible for them to celebrate the Feast of the Nativity—a festival of glad tidings—without some sort of Bacchanalia. Thus it appears that even 018 019