C h i l d Child Adoption: A d o p t Trends and Policies i o n : T r e n d s a n d P o l i c i e s USD 58 ISBN 978-92-1-151466-7 Printed at the United Nations, New York 09-65249—March 2010—5,725 [blank page] ST/ESA/SER.A/292 Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division Child Adoption: Trends and Policies United Nations New York, 2009 DESA The Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat is a vital interface between global policies in the economic, social and environmental spheres and national action. The Department works in three main interlinked areas: (i) it compiles, generates and analyses a wide range of economic, social and environmental data and information on which States Members of the United Nations draw to review common problems and take stock of policy options; (ii) it facilitates the negotiations of Member States in many intergovernmental bodies on joint courses of action to address ongoing or emerging global challenges; and (iii) it advises interested Governments on the ways and means of translating policy frameworks developed in United Nations conferences and summits into programmes at the country level and, through technical assistance, helps build national capacities. Note The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The designations “developed” and “developing” countries and “more developed” and “less developed” regions are intended for statistical convenience and do not necessarily express a judgment about the stage reached by a particular country or area in the development process. The term “country” as used in the text of this publication also refers, as appropriate, to territories or areas. This publication has been issued without formal editing. ST/ESA/SER.A/292 UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION Sales No. _E_._1_0_.X_I_I_I._4____ ISBNIS 9B7N8- 9020--10--105010406060--70 Copyright  United Nations, 2009 All rights reserved PREFACE The Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat is in charge of monitoring population policies in all countries of the world. Since the United Nations convened its first intergovernmental conference on population in 1974, the Population Division has been responsible for reviewing and appraising the implementation of the plans or programmes of action adopted by the United Nations international conferences on population. As part of its work, the Population Division produces in-depth studies on specific issues related to population policy. This report, focusing on policies on child adoption and the resulting trends in 195 countries, aims to provide Governments with the evidence necessary to assess their policies in this area. One of its major conclusions is that available data on child adoptions have a number of limitations that prevent a thorough assessment of the determinants of the process and its consequences for the parties involved. The systematic collection and publication of more detailed data on adoption would provide useful insights about how the process of adoption functions and would validate measures that the authorities in charge could use to ensure the welfare of adopted children. The World Population Plan of Action adopted in 1974 at the World Population Conference called for facilitating child adoption so that involuntarily sterile and sub-fecund couples could achieve their desired family size. Implicit in this recommendation was the idea that adoption is a means to approximate biological parenthood for couples who would otherwise be unable to have children. More than three decades later, the general view is that, in societies where marriage is being increasingly delayed, childbearing is postponed and levels of biological childlessness are on the rise, increasing numbers of persons are resorting to alternative means of experiencing parenthood, including through adoption. This report analyses adoption trends in light of changes in nuptiality and childbearing in order to assess the extent to which the generalized view presented above holds true. This study, the first of its kind undertaken by the Population Division, presents comparable information for 195 countries. The information presented relates to: adoption policies and legislation; multilateral, regional and bilateral treaties on intercountry adoption; levels and trends of total, domestic and intercountry adoptions, and data on selected demographic characteristics of the individuals involved in an adoption, namely, the adopted person, the adoptive parents and the birth parents. The report surveys recent trends and policies on child adoption while providing the cultural and historical background necessary to understand differences in country practices. Acknowledgement is due to Dr. Peter Selman, who contributed background material for several of the chapters of this study, and to Dr. Robert Gardner, who assisted in editing the publication. Responsibility for the design, execution and content of this study lies entirely with the Population Division. This publication, as well as other population information, may be accessed on the Population Division’s website, at www.unpopulation.org. For further information about this publication, please contact the office of Ms. Hania Zlotnik, Director, Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations, New York, N.Y. 10017; tel: (212) 963-3179; fax (212) 963-2147. iii CONTENTS Page PREFACE........................................................................................................................................................... iii EXPLANATORY NOTES....................................................................................................................................... xiii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...................................................................................................................................... xv INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................................. 1 Chapter I. HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF MODERN ADOPTION LAWS...................................................................... 5 A. Adoption laws in antiquity.......................................................................................................... 5 B. Adoption laws from the Middle Ages to the Modern Era........................................................... 9 C. Modern adoption laws................................................................................................................. 12 D. Adoption laws: present and future challenges............................................................................. 17 E. Summary..................................................................................................................................... 21 II. ADOPTION IN RELIGIOUS LAW AND IN TRADITIONAL SOCIETIES............................................................ 23 A. Adoption and religious law......................................................................................................... 23 B. De facto adoption and fostering in traditional societies.............................................................. 28 C. Summary..................................................................................................................................... 31 III. KEY FEATURES OF MODERN ADOPTION LAWS....................................................................................... 33 A. Legal procedures......................................................................................................................... 33 B. Legal requirements for prospective adoptive parents and adopted persons................................ 36 C. Effects of adoption...................................................................................................................... 45 D. Summary..................................................................................................................................... 48 IV. INTERNATIONAL, REGIONAL AND BILATERAL AGREEMENTS ON INTERCOUNTRY ADOPTION................. 52 A. International agreements............................................................................................................. 53 B. Regional agreements................................................................................................................... 57 C. Bilateral agreements.................................................................................................................... 59 D. Recent initiatives and future challenges related to intercountry adoptions................................. 60 E. Summary..................................................................................................................................... 63 V. LEVELS AND TRENDS IN CHILD ADOPTIONS........................................................................................... 65 A. Levels and trends in the total number of adoptions..................................................................... 66 B. Levels and trends in domestic adoption...................................................................................... 68 C. Levels and trends in intercountry adoption................................................................................. 74 D. Data limitations and steps to harmonize the collection of data on child adoptions..................... 83 E. Summary..................................................................................................................................... 86 VI. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF ADOPTIVE CHILDREN, ADOPTIVE PARENTS AND BIRTH PARENTS................. 89 A. Selected characteristics of adopted children............................................................................... 89 B. Selected characteristics of adoptive parents................................................................................ 98 C. Selected characteristics of the birth mother................................................................................ 104 D. Summary..................................................................................................................................... 105 VII. THE DEMAND FOR AND AVAILABILITY OF ADOPTABLE CHILDREN......................................................... 108 A. The demand for adoption from the perspective of adoptive parents........................................... 108 B. The demographic factors associated with the demand for adoption........................................... 111 C. The availability of adoptable children......................................................................................... 120 D. Summary..................................................................................................................................... 131 v Page VIII. A FRAMEWORK FOR FURTHERING THE STUDY OF ADOPTION................................................................. 136 A. Framework for the generation and collection of statistics on domestic adoption....................... 137 B. Framework for the collection of statistics on intercountry adoption........................................... 141 C. Conclusion.................................................................................................................................. 148 GLOSSARY........................................................................................................................................................ 149 REFERENCES..................................................................................................................................................... 153 COUNTRY PROFILES.......................................................................................................................................... 167 Afghanistan............................................................................................................................................. 169 Albania.................................................................................................................................................... 170 Algeria..................................................................................................................................................... 171 Andorra.................................................................................................................................................... 172 Angola..................................................................................................................................................... 173 Antigua and Barbuda............................................................................................................................... 174 Argentina................................................................................................................................................. 175 Armenia................................................................................................................................................... 176 Australia.................................................................................................................................................. 177 Austria..................................................................................................................................................... 178 Azerbaijan............................................................................................................................................... 179 Bahamas.................................................................................................................................................. 180 Bahrain.................................................................................................................................................... 181 Bangladesh.............................................................................................................................................. 182 Barbados.................................................................................................................................................. 183 Belarus..................................................................................................................................................... 184 Belgium................................................................................................................................................... 185 Belize....................................................................................................................................................... 186 Benin....................................................................................................................................................... 187 Bhutan..................................................................................................................................................... 188 Bolivia (Plurinational State of)................................................................................................................ 189 Bosnia and Herzegovina.......................................................................................................................... 190 Botswana................................................................................................................................................. 191 Brazil....................................................................................................................................................... 192 Brunei Darussalam.................................................................................................................................. 193 Bulgaria................................................................................................................................................... 194 Burkina Faso............................................................................................................................................ 195 Burundi.................................................................................................................................................... 196 Cambodia................................................................................................................................................. 197 Cameroon................................................................................................................................................ 198 Canada..................................................................................................................................................... 199 Cape Verde.............................................................................................................................................. 200 Central African Republic......................................................................................................................... 201 Chad........................................................................................................................................................ 202 Chile........................................................................................................................................................ 203 China....................................................................................................................................................... 204 Colombia................................................................................................................................................. 205 Comoros.................................................................................................................................................. 206 Congo...................................................................................................................................................... 207 Cook Islands............................................................................................................................................ 208 Costa Rica................................................................................................................................................ 209 Côte d’Ivoire............................................................................................................................................ 210 Croatia..................................................................................................................................................... 211 Cuba........................................................................................................................................................ 212 Cyprus..................................................................................................................................................... 213 vi Page Czech Republic........................................................................................................................................ 214 Democratic People’s Republic of Korea................................................................................................. 215 Democratic Republic of the Congo......................................................................................................... 216 Denmark.................................................................................................................................................. 217 Djibouti.................................................................................................................................................... 218 Dominica................................................................................................................................................. 219 Dominican Republic................................................................................................................................ 220 Ecuador.................................................................................................................................................... 221 Egypt....................................................................................................................................................... 222 El Salvador.............................................................................................................................................. 223 Equatorial Guinea.................................................................................................................................... 224 Eritrea...................................................................................................................................................... 225 Estonia..................................................................................................................................................... 226 Ethiopia................................................................................................................................................... 227 Fiji........................................................................................................................................................... 228 Finland..................................................................................................................................................... 229 France...................................................................................................................................................... 230 Gabon...................................................................................................................................................... 231 Gambia.................................................................................................................................................... 232 Georgia.................................................................................................................................................... 233 Germany.................................................................................................................................................. 234 Ghana....................................................................................................................................................... 235 Greece...................................................................................................................................................... 236 Grenada................................................................................................................................................... 237 Guatemala................................................................................................................................................ 238 Guinea..................................................................................................................................................... 239 Guinea-Bissau.......................................................................................................................................... 240 Guyana..................................................................................................................................................... 241 Haiti......................................................................................................................................................... 242 Holy See.................................................................................................................................................. 243 Honduras................................................................................................................................................. 244 Hungary................................................................................................................................................... 245 Iceland..................................................................................................................................................... 246 India......................................................................................................................................................... 247 Indonesia................................................................................................................................................. 248 Iran (Islamic Republic of)........................................................................................................................ 249 Iraq.......................................................................................................................................................... 250 Ireland...................................................................................................................................................... 251 Israel........................................................................................................................................................ 252 Italy.......................................................................................................................................................... 253 Jamaica.................................................................................................................................................... 254 Japan........................................................................................................................................................ 255 Jordan...................................................................................................................................................... 256 Kazakhstan.............................................................................................................................................. 257 Kenya....................................................................................................................................................... 258 Kiribati..................................................................................................................................................... 259 Kuwait..................................................................................................................................................... 260 Kyrgyzstan............................................................................................................................................... 261 Lao People’s Democratic Republic......................................................................................................... 262 Latvia....................................................................................................................................................... 263 Lebanon................................................................................................................................................... 264 Lesotho.................................................................................................................................................... 265 Liberia..................................................................................................................................................... 266 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.......................................................................................................................... 267 vii Page Liechtenstein........................................................................................................................................... 268 Lithuania.................................................................................................................................................. 269 Luxembourg............................................................................................................................................ 270 Madagascar.............................................................................................................................................. 271 Malawi..................................................................................................................................................... 272 Malaysia.................................................................................................................................................. 273 Maldives.................................................................................................................................................. 274 Mali......................................................................................................................................................... 275 Malta........................................................................................................................................................ 276 Marshall Islands....................................................................................................................................... 277 Mauritania............................................................................................................................................... 278 Mauritius................................................................................................................................................. 279 Mexico..................................................................................................................................................... 280 Micronesia (Federated States of)............................................................................................................. 281 Monaco.................................................................................................................................................... 282 Mongolia................................................................................................................................................. 283 Montenegro............................................................................................................................................. 284 Morocco................................................................................................................................................... 285 Mozambique............................................................................................................................................ 286 Myanmar................................................................................................................................................. 287 Namibia................................................................................................................................................... 288 Nauru....................................................................................................................................................... 289 Nepal....................................................................................................................................................... 290 Netherlands.............................................................................................................................................. 291 New Zealand............................................................................................................................................ 292 Nicaragua................................................................................................................................................. 293 Niger........................................................................................................................................................ 294 Nigeria..................................................................................................................................................... 295 Niue......................................................................................................................................................... 296 Norway.................................................................................................................................................... 297 Oman....................................................................................................................................................... 298 Pakistan................................................................................................................................................... 299 Palau........................................................................................................................................................ 300 Panama.................................................................................................................................................... 301 Papua New Guinea.................................................................................................................................. 302 Paraguay.................................................................................................................................................. 303 Peru.......................................................................................................................................................... 304 Philippines............................................................................................................................................... 305 Poland...................................................................................................................................................... 306 Portugal................................................................................................................................................... 307 Qatar........................................................................................................................................................ 308 Republic of Korea.................................................................................................................................... 309 Republic of Moldova............................................................................................................................... 310 Romania................................................................................................................................................... 311 Russian Federation.................................................................................................................................. 312 Rwanda.................................................................................................................................................... 313 Saint Kitts and Nevis............................................................................................................................... 314 Saint Lucia............................................................................................................................................... 315 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines............................................................................................................ 316 Samoa...................................................................................................................................................... 317 San Marino.............................................................................................................................................. 318 Sao Tome and Principe............................................................................................................................ 319 Saudi Arabia............................................................................................................................................ 320 Senegal.................................................................................................................................................... 321 viii