Preface to the third edition This textbook and CD have been produced independently of IBO as a resource to support the teaching of the Chemistry course of the International Baccalaureate. The examples and questions do not necessarily reflect the views of the official senior examining team appointed by the International Baccalaureate Organisation. The statements from the IB syllabus are reproduced with the permission of the IBO. In writing this book the authors hope to share material that they have found useful over the years with other Chemistry teachers in the context of the revised International Baccalaureate Chemistry syllabus. Those familiar with this course will find a close correlation between the order in which the book deals with topics and the order in which they appear in the syllabus. The text is accompanied by a series of exercises, most of which have accompanying answers on the CD, making this a useful resource for self-study to reinforce normal classroom teaching. The arrangement of material according to the IBO syllabus guide is clearly indicated in the Table of Contents, the topic lists on the chapter title pages and also with side tabs for Core, AHL, Options and Extended. HL material for Topics 12-20 has been included in Chapters 2-10 respectively. The category to which the contents of a particular page belongs can be ascertained by looking at the side tabs in the outer margin of the book and/or the syllabus statement (in the coloured boxes) which have been copied directly from the guide for Chemistry (©IBO 2007) and are used with permission. Coming from different continents the authors have tried to bring some uniformity to the writing style and nomenclature - for example the name of the element ‘sulphur’ should now appear as ‘sulfur’. Nevertheless there will almost certainly be some inconsistencies and we hope that these will be taken as a positive reflection of the international nature of publication. We hope that you, the reader, will find some of the same satisfaction in using this book that we have experienced in its production. The authors editor’s note This project has involved teachers, authors, proof readers, artists and many other people on several continents. It has been done within an extremely tight timeframe and involved thousands of emails across the world and many different software applications. We are pleased, and trust that you will also be pleased with the final product which went to Press with no known errors. However we know from experience that some typographic and other errors have escaped our proofing process and will emerge as students and teachers start using the books and CDs. We are very keen to idetnify and correct these errors. If you wish, you can help us and yourself in the following ways • Send us an email at [email protected] with details of any errors that you notice • Please visit www.ibid.com.au for errata sheets which will be produced promptly and be freely available as necessary • Check our website and other publicity regarding our ‘Student Guides to Internal Assessment’ and ‘Volumes of Investigations’ for the Core, HL and Options in Biology, Chemistry and Physics. These materials are currently in preparation and are due for publication later this year. the authors sadru damji Dr Sadru Damji has been IB Deputy Chief Examiner, Principal Moderator for Internal Assessment in Chemistry, Science Curriculum Development Committee, and Chemistry Subject Committee member responsible for writing the earlier IB Subject Guide. Sadru has been a Team Leader for setting, marking and moderating IB examinations for many years and continues to enjoy the opportunity to do so. He was part of the team that produced Phase 1 and Phase 2 of the Teacher Support Material on the Online Curriculum Centre (OCC) as well as being the OCC subject faculty member for several years advising and guiding teachers. As an experienced, dedicated and passionate teacher for both the SL and HL programs, Sadru has presented workshops and trained IB teachers around the world for over 25 years, has learnt a great deal from colleagues, and brings a wealth of experience from these interactions in writing this book. John Green Dr John Green has been involved with the IB since joining Kristin School, New Zealand, in 1987, after extensive teaching experience in the UK at Repton and Manchester Grammar School. There, as IB coordinator, he was responsible for the introduction of the IB into the school, the first in New Zealand to offer the programme. John is involved in IB Chemistry as an assistant examiner at HL and previously at SL, as a setter of examination questions and, under the previous programme, he was overall moderator for the SL practical programme. In this role he was involved in a small way with the major syllabus revision in the mid 1990s. At various times John has been present at both Chemistry and Final Grade Award meetings and has run many IB Chemistry workshops in the Asia-Pacific region. John also teaches Theory of Knowledge and has been an assessor for the course. In 1996 John moved to Hong Kong where he is currently Director of Studies at the Li Po Chun United World College. acknowledgements The Publisher wishes to gratefully acknowledge the advice and assistance of the following people in the development and production of these materials to support the teaching of IB Chemistry. authors Sadru Damji and John Green Proof readers Chris Talbot and Neville Lawrence artwork and graphics IBID Press and authors Layout Chris Houlahan and Colin Flashman Project management and editing Science Teaching And Resources (S.T.A.R.) In particular the authors would like to express their deep gratitude to Chris Talbot, currently teaching IB Chemistry at the Anglo-Chinese School in Singapore for all of his assistance with the publication of this and previous editions of this book. He has worked tirelessly to suggest ways in which the material produced by the authors could be improved and extended and, without his ‘eagle eye’ many more inconsistencies and typographical errors would have slipped through. Chris has also kindly contributed some exercises, answers and glossary terms. This book is dedicated to the many supportive family members and colleagues of those people involved in its production during the last 12 months or so. CONTENTS Chapter 1 QUANTITATIVE CHEMISTRY 1.1 he mole concept and Avogadro’s constant 4 1.2 Formulas 6 1.3 Chemical equations 14 1.4 Mass and gaseous volume relationships in chemical reactions 18 1.5 Solutions 26 Appendix 34 Chapter 2 ATOMIC STRUCTURE 2.1 he atom 47 2.2 he mass spectrometer 52 2.3 Electron arrangement 54 12.1 Electron coniguration 61 Chapter 3 PERIODICITY 3.1 he periodic table 70 3.2 Physical properties 72 3.3 Chemical Properties 76 13.1 Trends across period 3 (AHL) 82 13.2 First row D-block elements (AHL) 84 Chapter 4 CHEMICAL BONDING 4.1 Ionic bonding 97 4.2 Covalent bonding 101 14.1 Shapes of molecules and ions (AHL) 110 14.2 Hybridization (AHL) 114 14.3 Delocalization of electrons (AHL) 118 4.3 Intermolecular forces 122 4.4 Metallic bonding 126 4.5 Physical properties 127 4.2 Covalent bonding (cont) 130 Chapter 5 ENERGETICS 5.1 Exothermic & endothermic reactions 135 5.2 Calculation of enthalpy changes 138 5.3 Hess’s law 141 5.4 Bond enthalpies 144 15.1 Standard enthalpy changes of reaction (AHL) 147 15.2 Born-Haber cycle (AHL) 151 15.3 Entropy (AHL) 155 15.4 Spontaneity (AHL) 157 v Chapter 6 KINETICS 6.1 Rates of reaction 161 6.2 Collision theory 167 16.1 Rate Expression (AHL) 170 16.2 Reaction mechanism (AHL) 175 16.3 Activation energy (AHL) 179 Chapter 7 EQUILIBRIUM 7.1 Dynamic equilibrium 181 7.2 he position of equilibrium 184 17.1 Liquid-vapour equilibrium (AHL) 192 17.2 he equilibrium law (AHL) 194 Extension Material 197 Chapter 8 ACIDS AND BASES 8.1 heories of acids and bases 207 8.2 Properties of acids and bases 212 8.3 Strong and weak acids & bases 213 8.4 he pH scale 215 18.1 Calculations involving acids & bases (AHL) 217 18.2 Bufer solutions (AHL) 221 18.3 Salt Hydrolysis (AHL) 224 18.4 Acid–base titrations (AHL) 225 18.5 Indicators (AHL) 228 Chapter 9 OXIDATION & REDUCTION 9.1 Introduction to Oxidation & reduction 232 9.2 Redox equations 236 Extension Material 239 9.3 Reactivity 241 9.4 Voltaic cells 243 19.1 Standard electrode potentials (AHL) 245 9.5 Electrolytic cells 250 19.2 Electrolysis (AHL) 251 Chapter 10 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 10.1 Introduction 255 20.1 Introduction (AHL) 261 10.2 Alkanes 265 10.3 Alkenes 267 10.4 Alcohols 271 10.5 Halogenoalkanes 273 10.6 Reaction pathways 275 20.5 Reaction pathways (AHL) 276 20.2 Nucleophilic substitution reactions (AHL) 277 20.3 Elimination reactions (AHL) 280 20.4 Condensation reactions (AHL) 281 20.6 Stereoisomerism (AHL) 283 vi Chapter 11 MEASUREMENT AND DATA PROCESSING 11.1 Uncertainty and error in measurement 289 11.2 Uncertainties in calculated results 292 11.3 Graphical techniques 295 Chapter 12 Option A: MODERN ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY A1 Analytical techniques 299 A2 Principles of spectroscopy 299 A3 Infrared spectroscopy 302 A4 Mass spectrometry 304 A5 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy 307 A9 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy (HL) 308 A6 Atomic absorption (AA) spectroscopy 310 A7 Chromatography 312 A10 Chromatography (HL) 314 A8 Visible and ultraviolet (UV-Vis) spectroscopy (HL) 318 Chapter 13 Option B: HUMAN BIOCHEMISTRY B1 Energy 323 B2 Proteins 324 B3 Carbohydrates 331 B4 Lipids 334 B5 Micronutrients and macronutrients 341 B6 Hormones 343 B7 Enzymes (HL) 346 B8 Nucleic acids 351 B9 Respiration (HL) 356 Chapter 14 Option C: CHEMISTRY IN INDUSTRY AND TECHNOLOGY C1 Iron, steel and aluminium 364 C2 he oil industry 370 C3 Addition polymers 372 C4 Catalysts 374 C5 Fuel cells and rechargeable batteries 379 C6 Liquid crystals 382 C7 Nanotechnology 385 C8 Condensation polymers (HL) 389 C9 Mechanisms in the organic chemicals industry (HL) 392 C10 Silicon and photovoltaic cells (HL) 393 C11 Liquid crystals (HL) 395 C12 he chlor–alkali industry (HL) 397 vii Chapter 15 Option D: MEDICINES AND DRUGS D1 Pharmaceutical products 405 D2 Antacids 410 D3 Analgesics 412 D4 Depressants 415 D5 Stimulants 419 D6 Antibacterials 422 D7 Antivirals 424 D8 Drug action (HL) 425 D9 Drug design (HL) 427 D10 Mind altering drugs (HL) 431 Chapter 16 Option E: ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY E1 Air pollution 437 E2 Acid deposition 444 E3 Greenhouse efect 447 E4 Ozone depletion 449 E5 Dissolved oxygen in water 451 E6 Water treatment 452 E7 Soil 455 E8 Waste 459 E9 Ozone depletion (HL) 461 E10 Smog (HL) 463 E11 Acid deposition (HL) 465 E12 Water and Soil (HL) 466 Chapter 17 Option F: FOOD CHEMISTRY F1 Food groups 475 F2 Fats and oils 476 F3 Shelf life 477 F4 Colour 481 F5 Genetically modiied foods 486 F6 Texture 487 F9 Stereo-chemistry in food (HL) 488 (HL material from F7, F8 and F10 has been integrated) Chapter 18 Option G: FURTHER ORGANIC CHEMISTRY G1 Electrophilic addition reactions 495 G2 Nucleophilic addition reactions 497 G4 Addition–elimination reactions 498 G3 Elimination reactions 499 G5 Arenes 500 G6 Organometallic chemistry 502 G7, G11 Reaction pathways (SL and HL) 503 G8 Acid–base reactions 504 G9 Addition–elimination reactions 506 G10 Electrophilic substitution reactions 507 Glossary 513 Index 553 viii Quantitative chemistry Quantitative chemistry 1 . The mole concept and Avogadro’s constant .2 Formulas .3 Chemical equations .4 Mass and gaseous volume relationships in chemical reactions .5 Solutions s ome fundamental concepts Chemistry is a science that deals with the composition, Pure substances may be further subdivided into elements structure and reactions of matter. It is involved with and compounds. The difference between these is that an looking at the properties of materials and interpreting element cannot be split up into simpler substances by these in terms of models on a sub-microscopic scale. chemical means, whilst a compound can be changed into Investigations form an important part of any study of these more basic components. chemistry. This involves making observations, and using these in the solution of problems. A typical investigation The interpretation on a sub-microscopic scale is that all requires choosing a problem, working out a way of substances are made up of very tiny particles called atoms. attempting to solve it, and then describing both the Atoms are the smallest particles present in an element method, the results and the manner in which these are which can take part in a chemical change and they cannot interpreted. Namely, “a scientist chooses, imagines, does be split by ordinary chemical means. and describes”. Along with many other syllabuses, practical investigations are a requirement of IB Chemistry. An element is a substance that only contains one type of atom, so it cannot be converted into anything simpler by Matter occupies space and has mass. It can be subdivided chemical means. (note; ‘type’ does not imply that all atoms into mixtures and pure substances. Mixtures consist of an element are identical. Some elements are composed of a number of different substances, not chemically of a mixture of closely related atoms called isotopes (refer combined together. Thus the ratio of these components is to Section 2.1). All elements have distinct names and not constant from one sample of mixture to another. The symbols. Atoms can join together by chemical bonds to different components of a mixture often have different form compounds. Compounds are therefore made up physical properties (such as melting point and density) of particles (of the same type), but these particles are and chemical properties (such as flammability and made up of different types of atoms chemically bonded acidity). The properties of the mixture are similar to those together. This means that in a compound, the constituent of the components (e.g. a match burns in both air and pure elements will be present in fixed proportions such as H O 2 oxygen), though they will vary with its exact composition. (water), H SO (sulfuric acid), CO (carbon dioxide) and 2 4 2 The fact that the different components of the mixture have NH (ammonia). The only way to separate a compound 3 different physical properties means that the mixture can into its component elements is by a chemical change that be separated by physical means, for example by dissolving breaks some bonds and forms new ones, resulting in one component whilst the other remains as a solid. A new substances. The physical and chemical properties of pure substance cannot be separated in this way because a compound are usually totally unrelated to those of its its physical properties are constant throughout all samples component elements. For example a match will not burn of that substance. Similarly all samples of a pure substance in water even though it is a compound of oxygen. have identical chemical properties, for example pure water o from any source freezes at 0 C.  Chapter 1 t If a substance contains different types of particles, then he types of atoms it is a mixture. These concepts in terms of particles are There are 92 kinds of atoms, and hence 92 chemical illustrated in Figure 101. Copper, water and air provide elements, that occur naturally and about another good examples of an element, a compound and a mixture seventeen that have been produced artificially. Only about respectively. thirty of these elements are usually encountered in school chemistry and most of this would deal with about half of Element Compound Mixture these, shown in bold type in Figure 103. Each element is given a symbol that is used to write the formulas of the e r compounds that it forms. The significance of the atomic o c number and relative atomic mass of the elements will be Figure 101 The particles in an element, a compound and a mixture explained in Sections 2.1 and 1.3). The term molecule refers to a small group of atoms Figure 103 shows the common elements and some of their joined together by covalent bonds (refer to Section 4.2). characteristics. If the atoms are of the same kind, then it is a molecule of an element, if different it is a molecule of a compound. • Parts of the names where there are common spelling Most elements that are gases are diatomic (composed of difficulties have been underlined. molecules containing two atoms). Examples are hydrogen • You should know the symbols for the elements, gas (H ), nitrogen gas (N ) and oxygen gas (O ). The especially those in bold type. Most of them are 2 2 2 halogens (F , Cl , Br and I ) are also diatomic in all closely related to the name of the element (e.g. 2 2 2 2 physical states. The noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and chlorine is Cl). Elements that were known in early Rn) however are monatomic (i.e. exist as single atoms). times have symbols that relate to their Latin names (e.g. Ag, silver, comes from Argentium). The properties of a typical element, compound and • Note that the first letter is always an upper case mixture are shown in Figure 102. letter and the second one a lower case, so that, for example Co (cobalt) and CO (carbon monoxide) refer to very different substances. Substance Proportions Properties separation Element Contains only one type of These will depend on the Cannot be converted to Copper - a pure element atom. forces between the atoms a simpler substance by of the element. chemical means. Compound Always contains two Totally different from its Requires a chemical Water - a compound of hydrogen atoms for every elements, e.g. water is a change, e.g. reacting with oxygen and hydrogen oxygen atom. liquid, but hydrogen and sodium will produce oxygen are gases. hydrogen gas. Mixture The proportions of the Similar to its constituents, Can be carried out by Air - a mixture of gases in air, especially e.g. supports combustion physical means, e.g. by the nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide and water like oxygen. fractional distillation of carbon dioxide etc. vapour, can vary. liquid air. Figure 102 The properties of a typical element, compound and mixture 2 Quantitative chemistry Element Symbol Atomic Relative Number Atomic Mass TOK Numbers in Chemistry Hydrogen H 1 1.01 Try to imagine what it must have been like to have Helium He 2 4.00 been an alchemist about 500 years ago. Apart from trying experiments out for yourself, you might be able Lithium Li 3 6.94 to read in some books (if you had enough money to buy them - they were very expensive in those days) e Beryllium Be 4 9.01 r experiments other people had done, but there was o Boron B 5 10.81 probably little order to it. There was no theoretical c paradigm underpinning observations, no framework Carbon C 6 12.01 within which to relate substances other than superficial Nitrogen N 7 14.01 groupings such as substances that change colour when heated, substances that burn, substances that dissolve. Oxygen O 8 16.00 This all changed with John Dalton’s atomic theory, Fluorine F 9 19.00 propounded in the early 9th century, which is the Neon Ne 10 20.18 basis of modern chemistry: Sodium Na 11 22.99 • Elements are made of tiny particles called Magnesium Mg 12 24.31 atoms • All atoms of a given element are identical. Aluminium Al 13 26.98 • The atoms of a given element are different from those of any other element . Silicon Si 14 28.09 • Atoms of one element can combine with Phosphorus P 15 30.97 atoms of other elements to form compounds. A given compound always has the same Sulfur S 16 32.06 relative numbers of the different types of Chlorine Cl 17 35.45 atoms. • Atoms cannot be created, divided into smaller Argon Ar 18 39.95 particles, nor destroyed in the chemical process. A chemical reaction simply changes Potassium K 19 39.10 the way atoms are grouped together. Calcium Ca 20 40.08 The second point might need slight amendment to Chromium Cr 24 52.00 take account of isotopes, but apart from that this is Manganese Mn 25 54.94 more or less what we take for granted nowadays. Even though we now take it for granted, it was not Iron Fe 26 55.85 universally accepted until late in the 9th century - a common feature of any paradigm change. Cobalt Co 27 58.93 Nickel Ni 28 58.71 So where did atomic theory come from? Did Dalton just dream up these rules? Far from it, his atomic theory Copper Cu 29 63.55 was the crowning achievement of quantitative chemistry, pioneered notably by Antoine Lavoisier, Zinc Zn 30 65.37 during the preceding half century. These scientists Bromine Br 35 79.90 for the first time started to systematically record the masses of the reactants and products during their Silver Ag 47 107.87 reactions. Having numbers allowed people to use Iodine I 53 126.90 mathematics in their application of deductive logic to discover patterns in their results. The patterns Barium Ba 56 137.34 discovered led scientists to postulate about the existence of atoms (an idea that goes back to the Lead Pb 82 207.19 ancient Greeks) and to propose that these had Figure 103 The common elements 3