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Table of Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Chapter1: Essential Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.1 Chemistry in Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.2 Phases and Classification of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.3 Physical and Chemical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 1.4 Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 1.5 Measurement Uncertainty, Accuracy, and Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 1.6 Mathematical Treatment of Measurement Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Chapter2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 2.1 Early Ideas in Atomic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 2.2 Evolution of Atomic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 2.3 Atomic Structure and Symbolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 2.4 Chemical Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 2.5 The Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 2.6 Molecular and Ionic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 2.7 Chemical Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Chapter3: Composition of Substances and Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 3.1 Formula Mass and the Mole Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 3.2 Determining Empirical and Molecular Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 3.3 Molarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 3.4 Other Units for Solution Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Chapter4: Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 4.1 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 4.2 Classifying Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 4.3 Reaction Stoichiometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 4.4 Reaction Yields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 4.5 Quantitative Chemical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Chapter5: Thermochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 5.1 Energy Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 5.2 Calorimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 5.3 Enthalpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Chapter6: Electronic Structure and Periodic Properties of Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 6.1 Electromagnetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 6.2 The Bohr Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 6.3 Development of Quantum Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 6.4 Electronic Structure of Atoms (Electron Configurations) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 6.5 Periodic Variations in Element Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 Chapter7: Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 7.1 Ionic Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 7.2 Covalent Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 7.3 Lewis Symbols and Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 7.4 Formal Charges and Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 7.5 Strengths of Ionic and Covalent Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 7.6 Molecular Structure and Polarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 Chapter8: Advanced Theories of Covalent Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 8.1 Valence Bond Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 8.2 Hybrid Atomic Orbitals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416 8.3 Multiple Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428 8.4 Molecular Orbital Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 Chapter9: Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 9.1 Gas Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 9.2 Relating Pressure, Volume, Amount, and Temperature: The Ideal Gas Law . . . . . . . 467 9.3 Stoichiometry of Gaseous Substances, Mixtures, and Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 9.4 Effusion and Diffusion of Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 9.5 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498 9.6 Non-Ideal Gas Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 Chapter10: Liquids and Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521 10.1 Intermolecular Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522 10.2 Properties of Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534 10.3 Phase Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540 10.4 Phase Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551 10.5 The Solid State of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558 10.6 Lattice Structures in Crystalline Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565 Chapter11: Solutions and Colloids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599 11.1 The Dissolution Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 11.2 Electrolytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604 11.3 Solubility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607 11.4 Colligative Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618 11.5 Colloids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638 Chapter12: Kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657 12.1 Chemical Reaction Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658 12.2 Factors Affecting Reaction Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663 12.3 Rate Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666 12.4 Integrated Rate Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673 12.5 Collision Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684 12.6 Reaction Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690 12.7 Catalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694 Chapter13: Fundamental Equilibrium Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721 13.1 Chemical Equilibria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722 13.2 Equilibrium Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725 13.3 Shifting Equilibria: Le Châtelier’s Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735 13.4 Equilibrium Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741 Chapter14: Acid-Base Equilibria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763 14.1 Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764 14.2 pH and pOH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767 14.3 Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773 14.4 Hydrolysis of Salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788 14.5 Polyprotic Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793 14.6 Buffers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796 14.7 Acid-Base Titrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803 Chapter15: Equilibria of Other Reaction Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823 15.1 Precipitation and Dissolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823 15.2 Lewis Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 839 15.3 Coupled Equilibria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 842 Chapter16: Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861 16.1 Spontaneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861 16.2 Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865 16.3 The Second and Third Laws of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871 16.4 Free Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875 Chapter17: Electrochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897 17.1 Review of Redox Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 898 17.2 Galvanic Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901 This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col26069/1.5 17.3 Electrode and Cell Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905 17.4 Potential, Free Energy, and Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911 17.5 Batteries and Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915 17.6 Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922 17.7 Electrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925 Chapter18: Representative Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 941 18.1 Periodicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 942 18.2 Occurrence and Preparation of the Representative Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 952 18.3 Structure and General Properties of the Metalloids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 955 18.4 Structure and General Properties of the Nonmetals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964 18.5 Occurrence, Preparation, and Compounds of Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 972 18.6 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Carbonates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979 18.7 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981 18.8 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Phosphorus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986 18.9 Occurrence, Preparation, and Compounds of Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988 18.10 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Sulfur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003 18.11 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Halogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005 18.12 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of the Noble Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . 1011 Chapter19: Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029 19.1 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Transition Metals and Their Compounds 1029 19.2 Coordination Chemistry of Transition Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1044 19.3 Spectroscopic and Magnetic Properties of Coordination Compounds . . . . . . . . 1059 Chapter20: Organic Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1077 20.1 Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078 20.2 Alcohols and Ethers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096 20.3 Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic Acids, and Esters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1100 20.4 Amines and Amides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1106 Chapter21: Nuclear Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1127 21.1 Nuclear Structure and Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1128 21.2 Nuclear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1135 21.3 Radioactive Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1138 21.4 Transmutation and Nuclear Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1149 21.5 Uses of Radioisotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1164 21.6 Biological Effects of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1169 Appendix A:The Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1189 Appendix B:Essential Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1191 Appendix C:Units and Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1199 Appendix D:Fundamental Physical Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1201 Appendix E:Water Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203 Appendix F:Composition of Commercial Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1209 Appendix G:Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances . . . . . . . . . . 1211 Appendix H:Ionization Constants of Weak Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1225 Appendix I:Ionization Constants of Weak Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1229 Appendix J:Solubility Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1231 Appendix K:Formation Constants for Complex Ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1235 Appendix L:Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1237 Appendix M:Half-Lives for Several Radioactive Isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1243 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1313 This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col26069/1.5