Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, 98:1-8, 2015 Charles Darwin's Indian Ocean Experience PATRICK H ARMSTRONG School of Earth and Environment, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, 6009 Charles Darwin's time within the Pacific Basin is frequently described as a formative period in his development, while his traverse of the Indian Ocean in the first half of 1836 is much less emphasised. Yet his powers of observation remained at a high level in south-west Australia, on Cocos and Mauritius, at the Cape of Good Hope, and while at sea. 'The habit of comparison', as he called it himself, continued to be as important as ever. Themes noticeable in his earlier thinking and note-taking were consolidated during this period. He remained an avid collector of plant, animal and geological specimens and some of these specimens were to prove of appreciable significance. KEYWORDS: Charles Darwin, Indian Ocean, HMS Beagle, comparison, islands, coral INTRODUCTION coast of Chile, as well as the Maoris, Polynesians and Australian Aborigines. He collected hundreds of [T]he Pacific played a central role in shaping specimens - rocks, plants, insects, shells and vertebrates. Darwin's experience of nature and the nature of He wrote, on the traverse between Tahiti and Port modern science. ... As the Pacific shaped Darwin, Jackson (Sydney), the first draft of his theory of coral so Darwin shaped the Pacific. reefs and atolls: this was his first flirtation with the So wrote R MacLeod and P E Rehbock in the preface notion of gradualism. These were indeed all of to Evolutionary Theory and Natural History - Darwin's consequence in the development of his ideas, but he had Laboratory (1994). The role of the Pacific Basin in the previously visited the Falklands, St Paul's, the Cape development of Darwin's ideas - the Andes, the Verde Islands and Tierra del Fuego, as well as numerous Galapagos and Tahiti in particular - has been abundantly sites on the eastern coast of South America, and on the stressed. In the decade or two after the Beagle voyage, the homeward run HMS Beagle was to touch at the Atlantic contributions of the naturalists that followed Darwin Isles of St Helena, Ascension and the Azores. Almost all further enhanced the reputation of the Pacific as were important. 'Laboratory'. Hooker, Wallace and Huxley, all of whom The purpose of this article is to emphasise the became close associates of Darwin, also had experience significance of the traverse of the Indian Ocean to of Pacific environments. Darwin's thinking. This is taken as the period between Notable, too, in the development of the 'Pacific the Beagle's entering Princess Royal Harbour, Western Laboratory', was J D Dana, geologist on the United States Australia (6 March 1836) and her departure from Cape Exploring Expedition (1838-1842) under Lieut Charles Town on 18 June, both dates exclusive, a total of just 100 Wilkes (Viola and Margolis, 1985). Dana's work on coral days; a short period compared with the Pacific sojourn, reefs was profoundly influenced by Darwin's accounts, but over three times as long as USS Vincennes on the US and the two men corresponded about coral reefs, on Exploring Expedition. It thus includes his explorations of barnacles, and on the nature of the deep valleys of the the 'continental' environments around King George's Great Dividing Range in New South Wales (Armstrong, Sound in south-west Australia and at the Cape of Good 1993). This expedition spent some three years in the Hope, as well as visits to the Cocos (Keeling) Islands and Pacific Ocean, but expended just over 30 days hurrying Mauritius (which Darwin sometimes refers to as the Isle across the Indian Ocean, not pausing between the Straits de France). Just under half of this time was on land, or at of Sunda and the Cape of Good Hope. And although the anchor close to land. Erebus, with Joseph Hooker aboard, briefly visited the islands of the southern Indian Ocean (Kerguelen, Crozet), many expeditions saw the Indian Ocean as a barrier to Table 1. Time spent on land and at sea during HMS Beagle's Indian Ocean Traverse. be hastily traversed on the way to, or from, where it was perceived the real work was done. Locality Dates Total Darwin entered the Pacific Basin on 10 June 1834, and (1836) Days the Beagle stood out from Hobart Town, Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) on 17 Feb 1836, a total of just over 19 King George's Sound 7-14 March 7 months in the 'Pacific Laboratory'. In that time Darwin King George's Sound to Cocos 15 March - 1 April 18 had explored the Andes, speculating about the nature of Cocos 2-11 April 10 their uplift, and explored several island groups - the Cocos to Mauritius 12-29 April 17 Galapagos, Tahiti and New Zealand. Ho had met Mauritius 30 April - 9 May 10 indigenous people on the 'fine island' of Chiloe, off the Mauritius to Cape 10-31 May 21 Cape of Good Hope 1-17 June 17 Total 100 © Royal Society of Western Australia 2015 1 Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, 98(1), June 2015 THE INDIAN OCEAN EXPERIENCE elsewhere. It was this comparative approach that was in no small measure the key to his success. He did this Powers of Observation, an Eye for Detail and the frequently in his traverse of the Indian Ocean. On the 'Habit of Comparison' back of the above note he wrote: On passage from Mauritius to C of Good Hope Darwin did not like the sea, and was frequently sea-sick; Lat 37° 30'. Sea with the green flocculent tufts & indeed at one time considered abandoning the voyage. It [illeg] dust, during a calm day in very great would not be surprising if Darwin was feeling wearied quantities. Must be a most abundant marine towards the end of the voyage, and there is some production. evidence that he collected specimens less assiduously than earlier. But his eye for detail was as good as ever. Here is his account of the robber crab (Birgus latro) Moreover, it can be seen that he was arranging some of (Figure 3) on the Cocos (Keeling) Islands; his material around conceptual frameworks that were to These monstrous crabs inhabit in numbers the be of importance to him later. low strips of dry coral land; they live entirely on When the ship was 50 miles (80 km) west of Cape the fruit of the cocoa nut tree. Mr Liesk informs Leeuwin, on 18 March 1836, he describes what he called me he has often seen them tearing, fibre by fibre, Confervne - filamentous algae or phytoplankton. His with their strong forceps, the husks of the nut. account provides a good example of the level of detail This process they always perform at the typical of his notes (Figure 2). He; extremity, where their three eyes are situated. By constant hammering the shell in that soft part is ...observed the sea, covered with fine particles, as broken & then by the aid of their narrow if thinly scattered with fine dust. Some water posterior pincers the food is extracted I think this being placed in a glass, with an ordinary lens, the is as curious a piece of adaptation and instinct as particles appeared like equal sized fibres of any I ever heard of. The crabs are diurnal in their white wood. On examination under higher habits; they live in burrows which frequently lie powers, each particle is seen to consist of from 10- at the foot of the trees. Within the cavity they 15 cylindrical fibres. These are loosely attached collect a pile, sometimes as much as a large bag side by side all together; their extremities are full of the picked fibre & on this they rest. At seldom quite equal, a few projecting at each end. night they are said to travel to the sea where the The bundle was about 1 /50th of [an] inch, but any young are hatched, and during the early part of separate fibres rather less, perhaps l/60,h. The their life they remain. ... Their flesh is very good color a very pale brownish green. Each separate food. ... They are exceedingly strong. The back is fibre is perfectly cylindrical & rounded off at both coloured dull brick red: the under side of the extremities .... (Cambridge University Library body & legs is blue, but the upper side of the Darwin Archive [CULDA] 31.2/349) legs clouded in dull red. In the 'Voyage par un During the voyage Darwin was constantly comparing Officier du Roi' to the Isle of France there is an the observations in one locality with those he made account of a crab that lives on Cocoa nuts in a 2 P H Armstrong: Charles Darwin and the Indian Ocean /*'J O (cid:9632)V c .v *4f 6~t? A.4, Cy /ftr ^ ^A , /? U <£***?*. ^ ^ ^Jt U XJ~., - // -*X' ~~ "‘^X; r z^ Zaz • " .'Ju. "y a f fl y^3 UtZ f * /X, / X - t- c.i-.*,£* y Ay •‘> - /<r' y- yf/T^ 3U^ «_ /'"if STTTAz) s.S*. y -/..a«_ .*,4 t5k t .i.'U*—Xk, &**. f*-CCt~ tjt.J, e /"* AaL *-t~ C-i CA. «.. P. — l/5C it/a-, aA^J A ' , • / • / /< . «*> A **•-« *" ^ " *An&. A ~ 5^*. e-tV «. /• « A^*~ (cid:9632) fri^n-y^c y’tti /, ._ r* / ,'-iJ/ - A ’ • -^r<i ,/L. 3 <*vr* A‘A~».-: • fX'vX c~<~- ' j/ —?v ASjtyVr A #r SlL*~6c A-. titA'r. ft CTXZ *-» c si Sir*, t. »* v. , , „. _^L4 *“'*-»- a~A** • t *(cid:9632)• fw«- **"*- AA2£_. — .J5£_ n.^fL. (, .• ^w i £<(cid:9632) »«. A/a„ 7*»lZA ~&t__><(cid:9632)*!_ "2^ -A "'^v. Figure 2. Charles Darwin's notes on A 'zX Confervae, 50 miles (80km) off Cape ^ / Z (cid:9632)**» Leeuwin, Western Australia, 18 C^-^rv -. <>•» /y-'t~~ y .— 7c March 1836 (the year at the head, 1835, is of course an error). (*'\ U j o.(a. (cid:9632) — A/j. Jib**. (m.y <tCjCuC*-(l~~ ^4^C, Cambridge University Library. small island North of Madagascar: probably it is a key component of his evolutionary thinking, and the same animal ... 'instinct' presaging his works on animal behaviour, such as The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals Mr Liesk informs me that the crabs with (1872). swimming plates to posterior claw employ this In both southwest Australia and in Africa Darwin tool in excavating burrows in fine sand and mud made extremely detailed geological observations. His & he has repeatedly watched the process. first impression of King George's Sound was of the 'bare (CULDA 31.362) smooth conical hills' similar to those he had encountered Here is Darwin the observer at his best. He describes in South America; he continued 'I at once suspected that the organism accurately; most of his observations have the observation of Humboldt of the frequency of the form been confirmed in modern studies (eg Drew, et al, 2010). in hills of gneiss-granite, would be verified in this part of He enlivens his account with information from the Australia.' (Darwin had been reading Alexander von observations of a resident of the islands, and material Humboldt's Personal Narrative of his journey to South from a book to which he had access aboard the Beagle, America throughout the voyage, and was profoundly but clearly separates his own observations from those of influenced by it. Ref: CULDA 38.864-5). His descriptions others. He gives as much attention, or more, to the of the granites and granite landforms of the Cape were behaviour of the creature as to its appearance: feeding just as detailed: and burrowing are described in detail, along with the The granite is coarse-grained & contains very lining of burrows with fibre. Breeding and daily rhythms large crystals of feldspar; it is in many parts are mentioned. The organism is related to its habitat - traversed by veins; ... it contains balls of a dark coconut palm groves, growing in sandy soil adjacent to color which consist of an aggregation of minute the beach. The account strikingly integrates the animal's scales of black mica. (CULDA 38.902) morphology with its habitat and behaviour. There are signs of the comparative approach that was so Darwin was one of the first to identify the origin of fundamental to Darwin's work. He refers to 'adaptation', that characteristic African landform the kopje - 3 Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, 98(1), June 2015 some steep masses, the granite is worn away, into extensive shallow cavities of irregular forms, which resemble the defective parts, of any mass of cast metal. (CULDA 38. 902-4) This detailed study of weathering processes shows that Darwin clearly understood the long periods over which geological processes operate. He was by this time fully cognisant with Charles Lyell's doctrines of uniformitarianism, set out in Principles of Geology (1830- 1833), which he had in his possession. And it is clear from his notes that Darwin compared his geological observations of King George's Sound with his impressions of the rocks and landforms of the Cape of Good Hope and was able thereby to generalise about the processes in operation. Human Communities and the Cultural Landscape Yet it was not just in his geological and biological enquiries that reveal Darwin as both a first rate observer and one with the ability to integrate and see the 'big picture'. He had little knowledge of anthropology - and indeed this science was not well developed. Nevertheless he was curious about the human communities with which he came into contact often making extensive notes about their customs and traditions. Darwin's detailed description of an Aboriginal corroboree at King George's Sound was given in a previous issue of this journal (Armstrong, 2009). On Cocos he witnessed what seems to have been a funeral ritual, and he describes tine manner in which the Malay people caught turtles and fish. Figure 3. Coconut or robber crab, from Dictionaire In Mauritius and South Africa he was curious about D'Histoire Naturelle, 1849. the many races of humankind he encountered and the way in which they got along together - he had some appreciating that they were similar to the forms astringent criticisms of British colonial policy. 'Cape occurring in Australia. The massive rounded boulders Town is a great inn' he wrote in a letter to his sister formed through the decomposition of granite, and the (CULDA 97 (ser.2]:32-3) and Burkhardt and Smith, 1985, spheroidal weathering of the resulting corestones. 493) The Europeans were English, Dutch and French, with 'scattered people from other parts'. There were The granite is subject to extreme decomposition, Malays in significant numbers, but 'the number of & hence, when protected is covered by a great negroes is not very great.' He deplored the manner in thickness of rock, reduced into the state of soil. At which the Bushmen were 'the ill-treated aboriginals of the village of Paarl there are some extraordinary the country'. His diary entry for 30 April 1836 says of fine examples of loose balls of enormous size lying Mauritius: 'One of the most interesting spectacles in Port on the summits of the base mammiform hills of Louis is the number of men of various races'. The granite. Parallel & vertical fissures cross the Indians, he noted, were 'noble looking' and 'imposing'. mountains in directions at right angles to each He seems sympathetic to the 'poor man' who was 'a other. These may now be seen of various widths, confirmed opium eater, of which fact his emaciated body & it would appear that the great balls are only the & strange drowsy expression bore witness.' The remnants of original cubical masses. Besides the influence of his Edinburgh medical training is perhaps general description circumscribed patches of the apparent here both in his sympathetic approach and granite yield to the weather, much more readily appreciation of symptoms. He also deplored the manner than the adjoining parts. As we see in some in which the Malay people on Cocos were held in a type granites spherical masses projecting outwards of serfdom. Bigot he was not. from processing a harder & slightly different structure, so here cavities exist on the sides of In Mauritius, at the Cape of Good Hope and in Cocos steep rocks section; From the thinness of the he composed almost lyrical descriptions of landscapes overhanging lip, or front it appears certain, that and the manner in which the human community no other cause than the quiet action of the weather interacted with them. Here are his first impressions of has removed the central parts. A very large Mauritius, seen from the deck of the Beagle, 29 April 1836: hollow, forming a cave, exists in the lower surface The sloping plain of the Pamplemousses, scattered of one of the great balls on the Paarl. — This over with houses & coloured bright green from globular mass is perhaps about 30 ft high, it rests the large fields of sugar cane, composed the on several points, within which is a smooth foreground. The brilliancy of the green was the arched cave, frequented by cattle. On the sides of more remarkable because it was a colour which 4 P H Armstrong: Charles Darwin and the Indian Ocean generally is only conspicuous from a very short A union of two prevailing types of structure... A distance. Towards the centre of the island groups hilly irregular mass was defined by a well defined of wooded hills arose out of the highly cultivated circle of reefs, which in great part have been plain, their summits, as so commonly happens converted to narrow strips of land, which with ancient volcanic rocks, being jagged by the [Captain James] Cook calls them half-drowned.... sharpest points. Masses of white clouds were (Diary, 3 December 1835) collected around these pinnacles, as if merely for This appears to be Darwin's first written indication of the sake of pleasing the stranger's eye. (Diary) an appreciation of a link between atoll formation and 'drowning': it is interesting that there is a link with Coral Reefs and Atolls Captain Cook. The genesis of Darwin's 'Coral Atoll Theory' lies It was probably shortly after this, but before his arrival firmly in the Pacific. Correspondence with a Mr R E in New Zealand on 21 December 1835, that Darwin Alison, in June 1835, while he was still in South America, penned his 23-page memorandum entitled 'Coral Islands' suggests that Darwin was speculating on the possibility (CULDA 40/5). Here we see the first coherent expression of the 'sinking of land' in the 'Pacific islands', of his notion that fringing reefs (where the coral reefs are compensating perhaps for an uplift or a rising on the attached to the shore), barrier reefs (where the island is Pacific coast of South America (CULCA 36.1: 427 and separated from the reef by a moat-like lagoon) and atolls Burkhardt and Smith, 1985, 450). On the Beagle's voyage (Darwin often used the term 'lagoon islands') are westwards across the Pacific, he seems to have climbed members of a continuous series, one form progressing aloft, and looked down onto the lagoons of atolls from into another through subsidence (or drowning). quite close at hand: Darwin therefore developed his Coral Atoll Theory ... from the Mast-head it was possible to see at long before he actually had his feet on a real atoll! Noon Island across the smooth lagoon to the In his Diary entry for 12 April 1836, written shortly opposite side. The great lake of water was about after the Beagle had departed from the Cocos (Keeling) 10 miles wide. (Diary, 13 November 1834) islands in the eastern Indian Ocean, Charles Darwin At Tahiti (15-26 November 1835) he made a careful wrote: study of the relationship of the coral reefs to the main I am glad we have visited these Islands; such shoreline both for the islet of Eimeo (now Moorea) and formations surely rank high amongst the most for Tahiti itself. He also looked at the detailed ecology of wonderful objects of the world. It is not a wonder the reefs and their microtopography, noticing that coral that first strikes the eye of the body, but rather growth was most vigorous on the outer, wave-splashed after reflection the eye of reason. edge of the reef. He appreciated that coral would only grow within '25 to 35 fathoms' of the surface (approx 40- There is a certain triumphalism in this: Darwin seems 65m), and noted how steeply the sea floor sloped away a to be appreciating his own 'eye of reason'. It was at Cocos relatively short distance from the shore. A few days later, that the Coral Atoll Theory 'came together'. He was able the ship passed, but did not land on, the archcpelago of to apply what had thitherto been largely a theoretical Aitukaki (Darwin and his captain, FitzRoy refer construct to a real world example of an atoll or 'lagoon variously in their writings to Whytooacke, Whylootake, island' (Figure 4). He wrote extremely detailed notes, or Waiutaki), which represented... both on the geomorpholgy of the coral reefs and the Figure 4. Inner lagoon. Cocos (Keeeling) Islands. 5 Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, 98(1), June 2015 islands, and on the ecology of the corals themselves. He felt certain that generally the land had fallen relative to drew neat cross sections across the reefs, islands and the sea - with the situation on Mauritius where he had lagoon (CULDA 41). The officers of the Beagle conducted strong evidence that the opposite was the case. In his an offshore survey and it was noted that the seabed book of Coral Reefs he provides a map showing those sloped away very steeply from the island shore. No areas where he felt that submergence had occurred and bottom was found some 2200 yards (approx 2 km) from those dominated by emergence. Had the experience of the breaking waves, with a line some 7200 feet in length.. the Pacific Laboratory not been supplemented by studies In his Diary entry for 12 April, the day of the ship's of the two islands in the Indian Ocean Darwin's work on departure from Cocos, Darwin summarised his ideas as coral reefs would have had major lacunae, and his first follows - much more succinctly than in the earlier experimentation with the notion of gradual change in the manuscript: environment less successful. We may note in passing that in his investigation of reefs he not only emphasises ... we must consider this island as the summit of Lyellian gradual change, but the idea of a dialogue a lofty mountain. ... If the opinion that the rock¬ between organisms (the coral polyps) and their making Polypi continue to build upwards as the environment: a notion fundamental to his later work. foundation of the Isd from volcanic agency, after intervals, gradually subsides, is granted to be true, then probably the Coral limestone must be of Island Biotas and Long Distance Dispersal great thickness. We see certain Isds in the Pacifick, Darwin recognised the depauperate nature of island such as Tahiti and Eimeo ... which are encircled biota at a number of the islands and archipelagoes he by a Coral reef separated from the shore by visited during the voyage. On Cocos he describes the channels & and basins of still water. Various 'vigorous' vegetation - a response to the tropical climate. causes tend to check the growth of the most But he noted: efficient types of Corals in these situations. Hence, Besides the Cocoa nut which is so numerous as to if we imagine such an Island, after long successive first appear the only tree, there are five or six intervals to subside a few feet, in a manner similar other kinds. One called the Cabbage tree grows in but with a movement opposite to the continent of great bulk in proportion to its height & has an S. America, the coral would continue upwards, irregular figure ... Besides these trees the number rising from the foundation of the encircling reef. of native plants is exceedingly limited: I suppose In time the central land would sink beneath the it does not exceed a dozen. (Diary 2 April 1836) level of the sea & disappear, but the coral would have completed its circular wall. Should we not The 'Cabbage tree' was Scaevola sericea (Scaevola then have a Lagoon Island? Under this view, we Koenigii in John Henslow's account of the Cocos collection must look at a Lagoon Isd as a monument raised of plants - Henslow was Darwin's friend and botany by myriads of tiny architects, to mark the spot teacher at Cambridge). It remains one of the most where a former land lies buried in the depths of conspicuous plants on the archepclago, forming a loose the ocean. shrubby barrier along the shores. Darwin's count of the plant species diversity was an underestimate, but he was All this material was combined into the elegant, very right in principle: in comparison with the biota of the thorough case-study of the Cocos Islands that comprises forests of South America, or even Australia, it was poor. the opening chapter of The Structure and Distribution of It was the same for animals. 'There are no true land birds' Coral Reefs (1842), first volume of The Geology of the Voyage he said, 'a snipe and a land rail' being the only waders, of the Beagle. The fact that he commenced the work with all other species present being 'birds of the sea'. The this case-study implies that he considered his sojourn on 'snipe' was probably the ruddy turnstone (Arenaria Cocos as providing an important key to his study of coral interpres), the land rail a unique subspecies of the buff- reefs and atolls. banded rail (Rallus [Gallirallus] philippensis andrewsi), now Darwin continued his work on coral at Mauritius, only found on the tiny atoll of North Keeling, which some three weeks later. HMS Beagle briefly surveyed on 12 April 1836, but no On the NW, W & SW of the islands coral rock landing was made, Darwin simply noting: 'This likewise such as [is] now forming the reefs is commonly is a small Lagoon Isd, but its centre is nearly filled up.' found above the reach of the very highest tides ... He continued: To the northward of Port Louis the surface of the Insects are very few in number: I must except country to a height of 30 or 40ft, & to a some spiders & a small ant which swarms in considerable distance inland is coated by a bed of countless numbers at every spot & place. {Diary, 2 partially cemented fragments of stony branching April 1836) corals ... the rock is composed of precisely the same materials such as are lying on the beach. ... Significantly Darwin again clearly distinguished between the number of species, from the number of The elevation above the mean level of the sea individuals. A small note kept with Darwin's zoological appears considerable to exceed that of the reefs in annotations lists 12 species, including flies, ants, a couple the Pacifick; hence I suspect it is owing to the of species of moths and a beetle. When writing the visit rising of the land which has affected the whole Island. (CULDA 38.885-898) up for The Voyage of the Beagle he amends the total to 13. He notes also a single species of lizard. In his writings on Darwin was able to compare the topography and the plants and animals of the Cocos (Keeling) archipelago ecology of reefs in the Pacific, and at Cocos - where he words such as 'paucity', 'scanty', 'few' and 'only' occur. 6 P H Armstrong: Charles Darwin and the Indian Ocean Not only did he appreciate the low biodiversity of the Ptychadena mascareniensis: the Mascarene grass frog or island, there is evidence that he gave at least some Mascarene ridged frog). Darwin found 'this pretty thought to the possible means of dispersal of organisms species ... on swamps near the sea'; always interested in to the islands. Darwin handed over the plant specimens animal behaviour and locomotion he commented on 'the he collected at Cocos to Professor Henslow and, in 1838, extraordinary height of its leaps.' Although Darwin they were described in an article in Annals of Natural cannot have known much of its distribution when he History, In this paper Henslow wrote: 'Mr Darwin heard collected it, Bell noted that it had 'also been found in the of the trunks of trees, and of old cocoa-nuts being washed Seychelles, Madagascar and the Island of Bourbon on the shore'. Darwin could hardly have missed finding [Reunion]'. Darwin seems to have deduced from this that seeds and other organic debris along the tide-line of it had been introduced: recent studies, including DNA Horsburgh, Direction and Home Islands, all of which he testing confirm that he was right (Staub, 1993, Vences, visited. He drew attention in his Diary to the abundance Kosuch et al 2004). In Natural Selection, the massive 'big of seabirds, although he did not, at the time seem to have species book', written 1856-1858, but unpublished until speculated that these might have been dispersal vehicles, 1975, of which On the Origin of Species was a 'digest' he although he paid considerable attention to this point declaimed: later. Nevertheless in editing his diary for publication as It would be superfluous to give the cases amongst The Voyage, he wrote that the archipelago 'had quite the my notes of the enormous increase of Birds, fish, character of a refuge for the destitute'. This implies both frogs, snails & insects, when turned out into new the idea of the paucity in the biota in terms of species countries: the one island of Mauritius would numbers, and the idea of a long and difficult journey for afford striking instances of all these classes except those that eventually became successfully established. He fishes. (Chapter 5) continued: He used the frog example in On the Origin, but with a As the islands consist entirely of coral must at one slight twist. time have existed as mere water-washed reefs, all their productions must have been transported The general absence of frogs, toads and newts on here by the waves of the sea. so many oceanic islands cannot be accounted for by their physical conditions; indeed it seems that These words, however were written after his islands are particularly well fitted to these 'conversion' to an evolutionary outlook in the (northern) animals; for frogs have been introduced into spring of 1837. By then he appreciated the importance of Madeira the Azores and Mauritius, and have the link between long-distance dispersal and evolution: if multiplied so as to become a nuisance. (Chapter all life on earth had a common origin, or was ultimately •12) derived from a few simple forms, the biotas of remote islands must have been derived from elsewhere. Darwin pointed out that these animals and their spawn are soon destroyed by sea water, so their There are a couple of other observations that may have transport by sea would be rare. Evolutionary theory, brought the subject of long distance dispersal into his emphasising that life begets life and that living things mind while at Cocos. In his annotations on coral he noted can only reach remote islands by long distance dispersal, the presence of 'small pumice pebbles on beach from explains their absence. 'But why, on the theory of Sumatra, like the seeds'. Lumps of vesicle-filled volcanic creation, they should not have been created there, would material are frequently found on the shores, having be very difficult to explain.' floated there from volcanic eruptions in Indonesia (I myself found several on the shore of Home Island). Further he records collecting 'A piece of a well CONCLUSIONS rounded boulder of compact greenstone [dolerite] found Charles Darwin spent three and a half months within the in the coral breccia of the Northern Isd: in possession of Indian Ocean Basin. His powers of observation of plants, Capt. Ross'. Captain Ross, the proprietor of the islands, animals, marine organisms, rocks, landforms and human was away at the time of Darwin's visit, so the fragment communities remained at a high level. As he did earlier of rock must have been handed over by Mrs Ross or Mr in the voyage, he frequently used the comparative Liesk. In The Voyage the original boulder is described as method. His traverse allowed him to confirm ideas that being 'rather larger than a man's head' and on the basis he had generated elsewhere, such as the Coral Atoll of comparison with descriptions of similar phenomena Theory, applying it to Cocos, and slightly modifying it to mentioned by other authors the suggestion was offered take account of the evidence of rising land levels he that it had arrived on the lonely islet of North Keeling noticed in Mauritius. He compared the rounded granite amongst the roots of a far-travelled tree. Again evidence topography of King George's Sound with the kopje - as he saw it - for the reality of long distance dispersal. landforms around Paarl at the Cape, thus entrenching Despite his detailed geological notes, Darwin's the Lyellian views of gradual change ever more firmly in observations on the plants and animals of Mauritius are his mind. He had already commented on the relatively less rigorous. He admits in his notes that his attention low species diversity of island groups such as St Paul's in wandered; he wrote: 'since leaving England I have not the Atlantic and Tahiti in the Pacific. His observations on spent so idle and dissipated a time'. He collected few Cocos, and perhaps to a lesser extent Mauritius specimens, apart from a very few insects and a frog. confirmed this notion; there also seem to have been early This last was in due course identified and depicted in stirrings of the idea of long distance dispersal. He did volume 5 of The Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle not link the ideas of low diversity, evolution and (Thomas Bell, 1843) as Rana mascariensis (now known as dispersal until later, but the foundations were 7 Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, 98(1), June 2015 established. He captured a frog on Mauritius, only later Darwin C R 1842. The structure and distribution of coral reefs. Being understanding its significance. the first part of the geology of the voyage of the Beagle, under the command of Capt. Fitzroy, RN during the years 1832 to 1836. The Pacific was of course significant to his Smith Elder and Co, London. development, but not all-important. The Indian Ocean Darwin C R 1859. On the Origin of Species by means of natural experience can be seen as an early stage the of the selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for thoughtful process that continued in the two years life. Murray, London. following his return to England that led to his insight Darwtn C R 1860. Journal of researches into the natural histon/ and into natural selection. geology of the countries visited during the voyage ofHMS Beagle round the world. Murray, London. This work is almost universally referred to as The Voyage of the Beagle. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Henslow J S 1838. Florula Keelingensis: an account of the native plants of the Keeling Islands, Annals of Natural Histon/, 1, I thank Brian Shaw, Pauline Bunce, Geoff Martin and 337-347. Bob Keegan for comments on the paper. MacLeod R & Rehbock P E (eds) 1994. Evolutionary Theory and Natural History - Darwin's Laboratory, University of Hawai'i Press. Honolulu, ix-x. REFERENCES Vences V, Kossuch J, Rodel M, Loiters S, Channing A, Glaw, F & Bohme W 2004. Phylogeography of Ptychadena Armstrong P H 1993. The contrasting views on the Australian mascareniensis suggests transoceanic dispersal in a valleys of Charles Darwin and James Dwight Dana: an early widespread African-Malagasy frog lineage. Journal of problem in Australian geology. Journal of Australian Studies Biogeography, 31(4), 593-601. 39, 53-64. Viola H J & Margolis C (eds) 1985. Magnificent Voyagers: the US Armstrong P H 2009. Charles Darwin in Australia. Journal of the Exploring Expedition, 1838-1842. Smithsonian Institution Royal Society of Western Australia, Special Issue on Darwin and Press, Washington DC. Evolution 92, 385-388. Von Humboldt A 1814. Personal narrative of travels to the Barlow N (ed) 1933. Charles Darwin's Diary of the Voyage ofHMS equinoctial regions of the New continent, during the years 1799- Beagle. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 1804. Translated by Williams H M, Longman, Hurst, Rees, Bell T 1843. The Zoology of the Voyage of HMS Beagle, volume 5 Orme and Brown, London. Reptiles [and AmphibliaJ. Colburn, London. Staub F 1993. Fauna of Mauritius and associated flora. Precigraph Burkhardt F & Smh*h S 1985. The Correspondence of Charles Ltd., Mauritius. Darwin, volume 1 (1821—1836). Cambridge University Press, Stauffer R C (ed) 1975. Charles Darwin's Natural Selection, being Cambridge. the Second Part of His Big Species Book, Written from 1856 to Drew M M, Harzsch S, Stensmyr M, Erland S & Hansson B S 1858. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 2010. A review of the biology and ecology of the Robber Crab, Birgus latro (Linnaeus, 1767) (Anomura: Coenobitidae) Zoologischer Anzeiger, 249, 45-67. Bibliographic Note. Nora Barlow's 1933 transcription of Darwin's Beagle Diary was used - this is the most widely available version although there are others. I used a recent reprint of the first edition of On the Origin. Similarly I used a modem reprint of the 1860 edition (almost identical to the 1845 printing, but with significant differences from the 1839 version) of The Voyage (ie Journal of Researches). Although I inspected some of Darwin's original field notes in Cambridge, many of these are now available in Darwin Online (http://darwin-online.org.uk), and I checked my own transcriptions against these. 8