. . . I believe that thiS' nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to the earth. 25 May 1961 ... july 1969 A.D. We came in peace for all mankind. Frontispiece: Astronaut Edwin Aldrin walks on the surface of the moon near a leg of the lunar module after the 20 july 1969 Apollo II landing. He was pho­ tographed by fellow crewman Neil Armstrong. NASA SP-4205 CHARIOTS FOR APOLLO 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft by CouRTNEY G. BROOKS JAMES M. GRIMWOOD LOYD S. SWENSON, JR. The NASA History Series Scientific and Technical Information Branch 1979 NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION Washington, D.C. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Brooks, Courtney G. Chariots for Apollo. (NASA his·toryseries) (NASA SP-4205) Bibliography: p. Includes index. I. Project Apollo-History. I. Grimwood, James M., joint author. II. Swenson, Loyd S., joint author. Ill. Title. IV. Series: United States. National Aeronautics and Space Adminis­ tration. The NASA history series. TL789.8.U6A5239 629.45'4 79-1042 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20-102 Stock Number 033-000-00768-0 Contents Page FoREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . xi PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . Xlll I. CoNCEPT TO CHALLENGE •................................... 2. PROJECT PLANNING AND CoNTRACTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . • • . . 33 3. CONTENDING MODES • . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . • • . • . • . • • • 6I 4. MATCHING MODULES AND MISSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . • . . . . . 87 5. CoMMAND MoDULE AND PRoGRAM CHANGES . . . . . • • . . . • • . • • . • • II7 6. LuNAR MoDULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . • • • . . . • • • • I43 7. SEARCHING FOR ORDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I67 8. MoviNG TOWARD OPERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I89 9. 1LRAGEDY AND REcovERY................................... 2I3 10. RACE WITH THE DECADE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . • . • . • • 237 II. 1lASTES OF 1LRIUMPH . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 255 I2. 1LHE 1LRAILBLAZERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • . . . . . . 285 I3. 1Lo LAND ON THE MOON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . • • • • 3I3 I4. 1LRIP TO 1LRANQUILITY . . . . • . . . • . • . • • • . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . . . . • • . 337 El'ILOGUE 36I vii CHARIOTS FOR APOLLO Page APPENDIX A. MANNED SPACECRAFT CENTER SITE SELECTION PRO­ CEDURE .. . . . .. . ............. . ... . ....... . . . .... . 369 APPENDIX B . AsTRONAUT A ssiGNMENTS ....... . ... .. ...... . . .. . . . 373 APPENDIX C. APOLLO FLIGHT PROGRAM .................. . .. .. . 381 APPENDIX D. A polio 11 ExPERIMENTS .......... . .. . ..... .... .. . 394 APPENDIX E. Apollo 11 LUNAR SAMPLEs .. . . . ...... .... ........ . 396 APPENDIX F. MAJOR SPACECRAFT CoMPONENT MANUFACTURERS .. 399 APPENDIX G. APOLLO PROGRAM RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE MANNED SPACE CENTERS .. .. ... .. .. .... .. . ....... .. ... . .. . 401 APPENDIX H. FUNDING-AS OF 30 JUNE 1969 ... ... .. .. .. .. .... ... . 409 SOURCE NOTES 415 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NoTE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 Illustrations Page "We came in peace" ....... ... ............. ... .. .. ........ ........ ........ . ii-iii Lunar mission concepts, 1959 .... ................... ... .......... .. ... ... . . 2 Administrator Glennan visits Langley Research Center ....... .. .... ...... ... . 3 Army Ballistic Missile Agency concept of lunar landing vehicle ... . .. . ... .. . .. . 5 Lenticular vehicle operation .... ... ...... ........ ....................... .. . 10 Launch vehicles leading to Saturn C-1 and proposed C-2 ....... .. .... .... ..... . 12 Robert Gilruth and aides discuss contractor selection for Apollo studies .. ..... . . 16 Sketch of command module seating ............. .......................... . . 18 Spacecraft models proposed by industry ...... .......... ....... .. ........ .... . 28 Crew positions sketched by STG engineers in 1960 ..... ... .. . .. .... .. . ..... . . 36 Spacecraft modules, mid-1961 . ......... . . . ....... . . . ..... ... . . ...... . . .. .. . 36 Guidance and control system mockup and MIT Director Draper ............. . 40 Inertial measuring unit and technical design director Hoag, MIT . . . .. . .. .. ... . 40 Static-firing facility, Redstone Arsenal .... ..................... .......... ... . 54 Mississippi Test Facility ..... . . . . .. . ...... ... . . . .. ............... . . . .. .. . . . 54 Michoud Assembly Facility ... . . . . .. .. . ..... ... ......... .... . .. . .. .. . . . . . . . . 54 Vehicle Assembly Building, Kennedy Space Center .. .. ... .. . ... ........... . . . 55 Groundbreaking for MSC Operations and Checkout Building at the Cape . ... . . . 55 Manned Spacecraft Center .. .... ...... . . . ..... ... . . .. ... ....... . .. . ..... . . . 55 Launch of SA-I ........... ......... ... ... ...... ............... . 56 Comparative sizes of Atlas, Titan II, Saturn C-5, and Nova ...... ... .......... . 59 Three techniques for lunar landing .. .. .. ..... .. .............. ............. . 63 Two ways to land on the moon by direct ascent . . .... . . . .. ... .. . ... . ... .. ... . 63 Earth-orbit rendezvous .. .. ..................... ... ........... ...... ....... . 63 Lunar-surface rendezvous ..... ... . .. . ..... .. .. ... ..... .. . . . . . .. . .. .... . . . . . . 64 Early lunar lander concepts .... ... .............. .......................... . 68, 74 Spacecraft configuration changes, May 1960-.July 1962 .. .... .. .. ... ........... . 86 VllZ LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Page Webb and aides announce lunar-orbit rendezvous decision ............. . . . .... . 86 Model showing docking technique .. .... ... .... . .. ......................... . 86 North American officials study moon model ............... . ................. . 88 North American Aviation at Downey and impact test facility . ................. 90 Command module full-scale mockup, interior and exterior ................... . 91 Little Joe II prime contractor's program manager talks with NASA officials ..... . 93 Comparison of Little Joe II and Saturn launch vehicles ....................... . 93 White Sands Test Facility ............ .. ...... .... . ....... . . .. ... .......... . 93 Pad abort test at ·w-hite Sands and Boilerplate 6 after impact .. ........ ...... . . 93 Command module structure and fabrication ................................ . 95 Parachute recovery system ....... ... ........... ..... . . ............ ......... . 96 Bell's lunar landing research vehicle ........ ........ ....................... . 109 Congressman Miller examines model of Grumman's lunar module ........ .... . . 115 New astronauts watch Mercury liftoff . . ...... . ..... ...... . ..... . ............ I16 Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo spacecraft and launch vehicle configurations 118 GE employees monitor test in automatic-checkout-equipment control room ..... . 120 Apollo tracking network, Canberra radar antenna, and communications with the moon ............. . ... . ........ ............. ......... . 124 George Mueller briefs President Kennedy ... ........ . ...... .. . .... .. .... ... . 131 Lunar module extraction from adapter ..................................... . 132 Full-scale model of command module ....... ... ... . ..... . .... ... ........... . 134 Launch escape system and jettison ........ . ................ ... ..... . ....... . 134 Full-scale mockup of service propulsion module .. . .. . . .. .................... . 134 Probe and drogue assembly for docking ................... . ................ . 137 Command and service module mockup review ....... . ....................... . 139 SA-6 and Boilerplate 13 ready for launch ....... ....... .. ... ................. . 142 Lunar module evolution, 1962-1969; docked models; and Ll\f components ...... . 145 Proposed LM crew positions for landing, sleeping ..... . ................... .. . 150 Lunar module adds ladder and other improvements, fits into adapter ...... .... . !53 Test model I, lunar module mockup, with propulsion system engines .......... . 162 Cutaway drawings of command module .................................... . 170 Probe sensor on LM landing gear ................................. .. . ... .. . 173 Spacesuit and backpack, 1965 version ............... .... .. . .. ............ ... . 178 F-1 engine at Rocketdyne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . 184 Saturn V first stage at Michoud, arriving at Marshall, and fired in ground test ... 184 Mission Control Center, the mission operations control room, and Manned Spacecraft Center, 1965 ..... ...... ......... .... ....... .. ..... ... . 186 Apollo program funding, fiscal I960-I967 ............. . ..................... . 190 Apollo-Saturn 201 mission ................. .. .... ... ....................... . 192 J-2 engines and Saturn's S-II and S-IVB stages .......................... .. ... . 195 First Saturn V rollout ............ ..... ....................... .. . . .. .. .. . . . 196 Spacecraft 012 at North American and arriving at Kennedy Space Center ...... . 210 Workchart for CM-012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . ...... . 210 Astronauts Grissom, Chaffee, and White check headgear for AS-204 .... .. .... . . 210 Command module 012 after January 1967 fire ........................... .. .. . 216 Command module dual hatch and unified single hatch ... .. ... .... .. . .. ...... . 226 X-ray inspection of harness wiring ... , ... .... . ............................. . 226 Tools are replaced in accountability kit ................... ..... ............ . 226 Apollo 4 poised for first Saturn V mission .......... ...... ........... .. .... . . 233 Super Guppy ............ ........................... ................ . 243 zx CHARIOTS FOR APOLLO Page Lunar module 1 in preparation for flight on Apollo 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Launch Complex 39 was not on the Cape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Mouth of the Colorado River photographed from Apollo 6 . . . . . . . . . . 249 Crew of first manned Apollo flight practices recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Command module mission simulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Test vehicle in environment simulation chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Apollo 7, first manned Apollo flight .. . ... . . . ........ . . ... . . .. ....... . .. . ... 270-271 Apollo 8 circles the moon ............ .. ...... ....... ................ ...... 282-283 Spacecraft docking devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 McDivitt and Sd1weickart practice in the Ll\1 simulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 LM pilot wearing backpack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 Apollo 9 evaluates the LM in orbit .... ......... ..... .... ......... ........ .296-297 A polio 10, dress rehearsal for the landing ................. .. . . .. . ... . . .... .308-309 Apollo 10 crew meets the press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 Aldrin and Armstrong practice lunar surface activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Training for Apollo 11, with simulators, one·sixth gravity trainer, and lunar landing training vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 Plaque on lunar module landing gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 Off-loading rehearsal of the Mobile Quarantine Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 Lunar Receiving Laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 Apollo 11 lands men on the moon ..................... ........ ........ .. .. 350-351 Travelers to the moon return ............. ... .. .... ...... ...... ........... 356-357 Launch Complex 39 dedication plaque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 X