Chapter 9 Aircraft Electrical System Introduction The satisfactory performance of any modern aircraft depends to a very great degree on the continuing reliability of electrical systems and subsystems. Improperly or carelessly installed or maintained wiring can be a source of both immediate and potential danger. The continued proper performance of electrical systems depends on the knowledge and technique of the mechanic who installs, inspects, and maintains the electrical system wires and cables. 9-1 Ohm’s Law E I = Ohm’s Law describes the basic mathematical relationships R of electricity. The law was named after German Physicist George Simon Ohm (1789–1854). Basically, Ohm’s Law 28 volts I = states that the current (electron flow) through a conductor 4Ω is directly proportional to the voltage (electrical pressure) applied to that conductor and inversely proportional to I = 7 amps the resistance of the conductor. The unit used to measure resistance is called the ohm. The symbol for the ohm is the Example 2 Greek letter omega (Ω). In mathematical formulas, the capital A 28-volt deice boot circuit has a current of 6.5 amps. letter R refers to resistance. The resistance of a conductor and Calculate the resistance of the deice boot. the voltage applied to it determine the number of amperes of current flowing through the conductor. Thus, 1 ohm of E R = resistance limits the current flow to 1 ampere in a conductor I to which a voltage of 1 volt is applied. The primary formula derived from Ohm’s Law is: E = I × R (E = electromotive 28 volts R = force measured in volts, I = current flow measured in amps, 6.5 amps and R = resistance measured in ohms). This formula can also be written to solve for current or resistance: R = 4.31Ω E Example 3 I = R A taxi light has a resistance of 4.9 Ω and a total current of 2.85 amps. Calculate the system voltage. E R = I E = I × R Ohm’s Law provides a foundation of mathematical formulas E = 2.85 × 4.9Ω that predict how electricity responds to certain conditions. [Figure 9-1] For example, Ohm’s Law can be used to E = 14 volts calculate that a lamp of 12 Ohms (Ω) passes a current of 2 amps when connected to a 24-volt direct current (DC) Whenever troubleshooting aircraft electrical circuits, power source. it is always valuable to consider Ohm’s Law. A good understanding of the relationship between resistance and current flow can help one determine if a circuit contains an R = 12Ω open or a short. Remembering that a low resistance means increased current can help explain why circuit breakers pop or fuses blow. In almost all cases, aircraft loads are wired in parallel to each other; therefore, there is a constant voltage I = 2A supplied to all loads and the current flow through a load is a function of that load’s resistance. Figure 9-2 illustrates several ways of using Ohm’s Law for the calculation of current, voltage, and resistance. Current E = 24 V DC Electrical current is the movement of electrons. This electron movement is referred to as current, flow, or current flow. In Figure 9-1. Ohm's Law used to calculate how much current a lamp practical terms, this movement of electrons must take place will pass when connected to a 24-volt DC power source. within a conductor (wire). Current is typically measured in Example 1 amps. The symbol for current is I and the symbol for amps is A. A 28-volt landing light circuit has a lamp with 4 ohms of resistance. Calculate the total current of the circuit. The current flow is actually the movement of the free electrons found within conductors. Common conductors 9-2 the use of DC. It should be noted that as with the movement of any mass, electron movement (current flow) only occurs when there is a force present to push the electrons. This force is commonly called voltage (described in more detail in the A To find I (amperes), E next section). When a voltage is applied across the conductor, place thumb over I and divide E by R an electromotive force creates an electric field within the as indicated. conductor, and a current is established. The electrons do not I X R move in a straight direction, but undergo repeated collisions with other nearby atoms within a conductor. These collisions usually knock other free electrons from their atoms, and these electrons move on toward the positive end of the conductor with an average velocity called the drift velocity, which is relatively low speed. To understand the nearly instantaneous To find R (ohms), B place thumb over E speed of the effect of the current, it is helpful to visualize a R and divide as long tube filled with steel balls. [Figure 9-3] indicated. I X R To find E (volts), C place thumb over E Figure 9-3. Electron flow. E and multiply as indicated. It can be seen that a ball introduced in one end of the tube, I X R which represents the conductor, immediately causes a ball to be emitted at the opposite end of the tube. Thus, electric current can be viewed as instantaneous, even though it is the result of a relatively slow drift of electrons. Figure 9-2. Ohm's Law chart. Conventional Current Theory and Electron Theory include copper, silver, aluminum, and gold. The term “free There are two competing schools of thought regarding the electron” describes a condition in some atoms where the flow of electricity. The two explanations are the conventional outer electrons are loosely bound to their parent atom. These current theory and the electron theory. Both theories loosely bound electrons are easily motivated to move in a describe the movement of electrons through a conductor. given direction when an external source, such as a battery, They simply explain the direction current moves. Typically is applied to the circuit. These electrons are attracted to the during troubleshooting or the connection of electrical circuits, positive terminal of the battery, while the negative terminal the use of either theory can be applied as long as it is used is the source of the electrons. So, the measure of current is consistently. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) actually the number of electrons moving through a conductor officially defines current flow using electron theory (negative in a given amount of time. to positive). The internationally accepted unit for current is the ampere The conventional current theory was initially advanced by (A). One ampere (A) of current is equivalent to 1 coulomb Benjamin Franklin, who reasoned that current flowed out of (C) of charge passing through a conductor in 1 second. One coulomb of charge equals 6.28 × 1018 electrons. Obviously, a positive source into a negative source or an area that lacked an abundance of charge. The notation assigned to the electric the unit of amperes is a much more convenient term to use charges was positive (+) for the abundance of charge and than coulombs. The unit of coulombs is simply too small to negative (−) for a lack of charge. It then seemed natural to be practical. visualize the flow of current as being from the positive (+) to the negative (−). Later discoveries were made that proved When current flow is in one direction, it is called direct that just the opposite is true. Electron theory describes what current (DC). Later in the text, the form of current that actually happens in the case of an abundance of electrons periodically oscillates back and forth within the circuit is flowing out of the negative (−) source to an area that lacks discussed. The present discussion is concerned only with 9-3 electrons or the positive (+) source. Both conventional flow that caused the water to flow; rather, it was the difference and electron flow are used in industry. in pressure between tank A and tank B that caused the flow. This comparison illustrates the principle that electrons move, Electromotive Force (Voltage) when a path is available, from a point of excess electrons Voltage is most easily described as electrical pressure force. (higher potential energy) to a point deficient in electrons It is the electromotive force (EMF), or the push or pressure (lower potential energy). The force that causes this movement from one end of the conductor to the other, that ultimately is the potential difference in electrical energy between the two moves the electrons. The symbol for EMF is the capital letter points. This force is called the electrical pressure (voltage), E. EMF is always measured between two points and voltage the potential difference, or the electromotive force (electron is considered a value between two points. For example, moving force). across the terminals of the typical aircraft battery, voltage can be measured as the potential difference of 12 volts or Resistance 24 volts. That is to say that between the two terminal posts The two fundamental properties of current and voltage of the battery, there is a voltage available to push current are related by a third property known as resistance. In any through a circuit. Free electrons in the negative terminal of electrical circuit, when voltage is applied to it, a current the battery move toward the excessive number of positive results. The resistance of the conductor determines the charges in the positive terminal. The net result is a flow or amount of current that flows under the given voltage. In current through a conductor. There cannot be a flow in a general, the greater the circuit resistance, the less the current. conductor unless there is an applied voltage from a battery, If the resistance is reduced, then the current will increase. generator, or ground power unit. The potential difference, This relation is linear in nature and is known as Ohm’s Law. or the voltage across any two points in an electrical system, An example would be if the resistance of a circuit is doubled, can be determined by: and the voltage is held constant, then the current through the resistor is cut in half. V – V = V 1 2 Drop There is no distinct dividing line between conductors and Example insulators; under the proper conditions, all types of material The voltage at one point is 14 volts. The voltage at a second conduct some current. Materials offering a resistance to point in the circuit is 12.1 volts. To calculate the voltage drop, current flow midway between the best conductors and the use the formula above to get a total voltage drop of 1.9 volts. poorest conductors (insulators) are sometimes referred to as semiconductors and find their greatest application in the Figure 9-4 illustrates the flow of electrons of electric current. field of transistors. Two interconnected water tanks demonstrate that when a difference of pressure exists between the two tanks, water The best conductors are materials, chiefly metals, that possess flows until the two tanks are equalized. Figure 9-4 shows a large number of free electrons. Conversely, insulators are the level of water in tank A to be at a higher level, reading materials having few free electrons. The best conductors are 10 pounds per square inch (psi) (higher potential energy), silver, copper, gold, and aluminum, but some nonmetals, such than the water level in tank B, reading 2 psi (lower potential as carbon and water, can be used as conductors. Materials energy). Between the two tanks, there is 8 psi potential such as rubber, glass, ceramics, and plastics are such poor difference. If the valve in the interconnecting line between the conductors that they are usually used as insulators. The tanks is opened, water flows from tank A into tank B until the current flow in some of these materials is so low that it is level of water (potential energy) of both tanks is equalized. usually considered zero. It is important to note that it was not the pressure in tank A Factors Affecting Resistance The resistance of a metallic conductor is dependent on the type of conductor material. It has been pointed out that certain metals are commonly used as conductors because of the large number of free electrons in their outer orbits. Copper is usually considered the best available conductor material, since a copper wire of a particular diameter offers a lower resistance to current flow than an aluminum wire of the same diameter. However, aluminum is much lighter than copper, A B and for this reason, as well as cost considerations, aluminum is often used when the weight factor is important. Figure 9-4. Difference of pressure. 9-4 The resistance of a metallic conductor is directly proportional produces electricity using two different metals in a chemical to its length. The longer the length of a given size of wire, the solution like alkaline electrolyte. A chemical reaction exists greater the resistance. Figure 9-5 shows two wire conductors between the metals which frees more electrons in one metal of different lengths. If 1 volt of electrical pressure is applied than in the other. across the two ends of the conductor that is 1 foot in length and the resistance to the movement of free electrons is Heat used to produce electricity creates the thermoelectric assumed to be 1 ohm, the current flow is limited to 1 ampere. effect. When a device called a thermocouple is subjected to If the same size conductor is doubled in length, the same heat, a voltage is produced. A thermocouple is a junction electrons set in motion by the 1 volt applied now find twice between two different metals that produces a voltage related the resistance. to a temperature difference. If the thermocouple is connected to a complete circuit, a current also flows. Thermocouples are often found on aircraft as part of a temperature monitoring system, such as a cylinder head temperature gauge. Electromagnetic induction is the process of producing a voltage (EMF) by moving a magnetic field in relationship 2 feet m s) to a conductor. As shown in Figure 9-6, when a conductor O h (wire) is moved through a magnetic field, an EMF is produced m p ( 2 in the conductor. If a complete circuit is connected to the A 0.5 conductor, the voltage also produces a current flow. 1 foot m) + m p (1 O h A 1 + EMF Figure 9-5. Resistance varies with length of conductor. N Electromagnetic Generation of Power Electrical energy can be produced through a number of methods. Common methods include the use of light, pressure, S heat, chemical, and electromagnetic induction. Of these processes, electromagnetic induction is most responsible for the generation of the majority of the electrical power used Motion of conductor by humans. Virtually all mechanical devices (generators and alternators) that produce electrical power employ the process Figure 9-6. Inducing an EMF in a conductor. of electromagnetic induction. The use of light, pressure, heat, and chemical sources for electrical power is found on One single conductor does not produce significant voltage/ aircraft but produce a minimal amount of all the electrical current via electromagnetic induction. [Figure 9-6] In power consumed during a typical flight. practice, instead of a single wire, a coil of wire is moved through the magnetic field of a strong magnet. This produces In brief, light can produce electricity using a solar cell a greater electrical output. In many cases, the magnetic field (photovoltaic cell). These cells contain a certain chemical is created by using a powerful electromagnet. This allows that converts light energy into voltage/current. for the production of a greater voltage/current due to the stronger magnetic field produced by the electromagnet when Using pressure to generate electrical power is commonly compared to an ordinary magnet. known as the piezoelectric effect. The piezoelectric effect (piezo or piez taken from Greek: to press; pressure; to Please note that this text often refers to voltage/current in squeeze) is a result of the application of mechanical pressure regards to electrical power. Remember voltage (electrical on a dielectric or nonconducting crystal. pressure) must be present to produce a current (electron flow). Hence, the output energy generated through the process Chemical energy can be converted into electricity, most of electromagnetic induction always consists of voltage. commonly in the form of a battery. A primary battery 9-5 Current also results when a complete circuit is connected to current flow within the conductor. [Figure 9-8] Of course, that voltage. Electrical power is produced when there is both the direction of current flow is a function of the polarity of electrical pressure E (EMF) and current (I). Power = Current the voltage induced in to the conductor. × Voltage (P = I × E) It is the relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic Cmoonvdeudc utopr field that causes current to flow in the conductor. Either the Flux forward conductor or magnet can be moving or stationary. When a magnet and its field are moved through a coiled conductor, I as shown in Figure 9-7, a DC voltage with a specific polarity EMFnducte d is produced. The polarity of this voltage depends on the direction in which the magnet is moved and the position of the north and south poles of the magnetic field. The generator S left-hand rule can be used to determine the direction of N Motion of magnet Galvanometer Induced EMF I Figure 9-8. An application of the generator left-hand rule. A N In practice, producing voltage/current using the process of electromagnetic induction requires a rotating machine. Coil I Generally speaking, on all aircraft, a generator or alternator S employs the principles of electromagnetic induction to create electrical power for the aircraft. Either the magnetic field can rotate or the conductor can rotate. [Figure 9-9] The rotating component is driven by a mechanical device, such as an aircraft engine. N B Magnet at rest S N S B N Motion of magnet A C S I Figure 9-9. Voltage induced in a loop. During the process of electromagnetic induction, the value of the induced voltage/current depends on three basic factors: I 1. Number of turns in the conductor coil (more loops equals greater induced voltage) Figure 9-7. Inducing a current flow. 9-6 2. Strength of the electromagnet (the stronger the conductor advances from position 1 to position 2, the induced magnetic field, the greater the induced voltage) voltage gradually increases. 3. Speed of rotation of the conductor or magnet (the Position 2 faster the rotation, the greater the induced voltage) The conductor is now moving in a direction perpendicular to the flux and cuts a maximum number of lines of force; Figure 9-10 illustrates the basics of a rotating machine used therefore, a maximum voltage is induced. As the conductor to produce voltage. The simple generating device consists moves beyond position 2, it cuts a decreasing amount of flux, of a rotating loop, marked A and B, placed between two and the induced voltage decreases. magnetic poles, N and S. The ends of the loop are connected to two metal slip rings (collector rings), C1 and C2. Current Position 3 is taken from the collector rings by brushes. If the loop is At this point, the conductor has made half a revolution and considered as separate wires, A and B, and the left-hand rule again moves parallel to the lines of force, and no voltage is for generators is applied, then it can be observed that as wire induced in the conductor. As the A conductor passes position B moves up across the field, a voltage is induced that causes 3, the direction of induced voltage now reverses since the A the current to flow towards the reader. As wire A moves down conductor is moving downward, cutting flux in the opposite across the field, a voltage is induced that causes the current to direction. As the A conductor moves across the south pole, the flow away from the reader. When the wires are formed into induced voltage gradually increases in a negative direction a loop, the voltages induced in the two sides of the loop are until it reaches position 4. combined. Therefore, for explanatory purposes, the action of either conductor, A or B, while rotating in the magnetic Position 4 field is similar to the action of the loop. Like position 2, the conductor is again moving perpendicular to the flux and generates a maximum negative voltage. Figure 9-11 illustrates the generation of alternating current From position 4 to position 5, the induced voltage gradually (AC) with a simple loop conductor rotating in a magnetic decreases until the voltage is zero, and the conductor and field. As it is rotated in a counterclockwise direction, varying wave are ready to start another cycle. voltages are induced in the conductive loop. Position 5 Position 1 The curve shown at position 5 is called a sine wave. It The conductor A moves parallel to the lines of force. Since represents the polarity and the magnitude of the instantaneous it cuts no lines of force, the induced voltage is zero. As the Cross section of loop N Direction of rotation N Brushes B + A A Direction of movement C2 B of the loop C1 through the magnetic field Collector rings S S A side of loop B side of loop + Current flow is toward the reader Current flow is away from reader Figure 9-10. Simple generator. 9-7 Magnetic field N N B 360° AAAA 360° 0° 90° 180° 270° 00°° 90° 180° 270° C1 C2 A C1 CC22 B S S Zero voltage Maximum positive voltage Position 1 Position 2 Quarter turn completed Rotating conductors moving parallel to magnetic field, Conductors cutting directly across the magnetic field as conductor cutting minimum lines of force. A passes across the north magnetic pole and B passes across the S pole. N N BBBBBB A 360° 360° 0° 90° 180° 270° CC22 000°° 90° 180° 270° C2 B C1 AA C1 S S Voltage drops to zero Maximum negative voltage Position 3 One half turn completed Position 4 Three quarters turn completed Conductor again moving parallel to magnetic field, cutting minimum Conductors again moving directly across magnetic field A passes lines of force. across south magnetic pole and B across N magnetic pole. N B 360° 0° 90° 180° 270° C2 A C1 S Zero voltage Position 5 Full turn completed Conductor A has made one complete cycle and is in same position as in position A. The generator has generated one complete cycle of alternating voltage or current. Figure 9-11. Generation of a sine wave. values of the voltages generated. The horizontal baseline is The specific operating principles of both alternators and divided into degrees, or time, and the vertical distance above generators as they apply to aircraft is presented later in or below the baseline represents the value of voltage at each this text. particular point in the rotation of the loop. 9-8 Alternating Current (AC) Introduction Definitions Alternating current (AC) electrical systems are found on most Values of AC multi-engine, high performance turbine powered aircraft and There are three values of AC that apply to both voltage and transport category aircraft. AC is the same type of electricity current. These values help to define the sine wave and are used in industry and to power our homes. Direct current (DC) called instantaneous, peak, and effective. It should be noted is used on systems that must be compatible with battery that during the discussion of these terms, the text refers to power, such as on light aircraft and automobiles. There are voltage. But remember, the values apply to voltage and many benefits of AC power when selected over DC power current in all AC circuits. for aircraft electrical systems. Instantaneous AC can be transmitted over long distances more readily An instantaneous voltage is the value at any instant in time and more economically than DC, since AC voltages can be along the AC wave. The sine wave represents a series of increased or decreased by means of transformers. Because these values. The instantaneous value of the voltage varies more and more units are being operated electrically in from zero at 0° to maximum at 90°, back to zero at 180°, airplanes, the power requirements are such that a number of to maximum in the opposite direction at 270°, and to zero advantages can be realized by using AC (especially with large again at 360°. Any point on the sine wave is considered the transport category aircraft). Space and weight can be saved instantaneous value of voltage. since AC devices, especially motors, are smaller and simpler than DC devices. In most AC motors, no brushes are required, Peak and they require less maintenance than DC motors. Circuit The peak value is the largest instantaneous value, often breakers operate satisfactorily under loads at high altitudes in referred to as the maximum value. The largest single positive an AC system, whereas arcing is so excessive on DC systems value occurs after a certain period of time when the sine wave that circuit breakers must be replaced frequently. Finally, reaches 90°, and the largest single negative value occurs most airplanes using a 24-volt DC system have special when the wave reaches 270°. Although important in the equipment that requires a certain amount of 400 cycle AC understanding of the AC sine wave, peak values are seldom current. For these aircraft, a unit called an inverter is used to used by aircraft technicians. change DC to AC. Inverters are discussed later in this book. Effective AC is constantly changing in value and polarity, or as the The effective values for voltage are always less than the name implies, alternating. Figure 9-12 shows a graphic peak (maximum) values of the sine wave and approximate comparison of DC and AC. The polarity of DC never DC voltage of the same value. For example, an AC circuit of changes, and the polarity and voltage constantly change in 24 volts and 2 amps should produce the same heat through a AC. It should also be noted that the AC cycle repeats at given resistor as a DC circuit of 24 volts and 2 amps. The effective intervals. With AC, both voltage and current start at zero, value is also known as the root mean square, or RMS value, increase, reach a peak, then decrease and reverse polarity. which refers to the mathematical process by which the value If one is to graph this concept, it becomes easy to see the is derived. alternating wave form. This wave form is typically referred to as a sine wave. Most AC meters display the effective value of the AC. In almost all cases, the voltage and current ratings of a system Wave form for DC + Wave form for AC s olts Volt 180° 270° 360° V Cswloistcehd Operation of circuit sOwpitecnh 0° 90° − Time Time Figure 9-12. DC and AC voltage curves. 9-9 or component are given in effective values. In other words, the industry ratings are based on effective values. Peak and Positive alternation instantaneous values, used only in very limited situations, would be stated as such. In the study of AC, any values given e) Horizontal scale g for current or voltage are assumed to be effective values olta (time) unless otherwise specified. In practice, only the effective e (v 1T 2T 3T 4T values of voltage and current are used. al c s al Negative c The effective value is equal to .707 times the peak (maximum) erti alternation value. Conversely, the peak value is 1.41 times the effective V One cycle Second cycle value. Thus, the 110 volt value given for AC is only 0.707 one period of the peak voltage of this supply. The maximum voltage is (time) One wavelength approximately 155 volts (110 × 1.41 = 155 volts maximum). (distance) How often the AC waveform repeats is known as the AC Figure 9-14. Cycle of voltage. frequency. The frequency is typically measured in cycles per second (CPS) or hertz (Hz). One Hz equals one CPS. The increases to a maximum negative value, and again decreases time it takes for the sine wave to complete one cycle is known to zero. The cycle repeats until the voltage is no longer as period (P). Period is a value or time period and typically available. There are two alternations in a complete cycle: measured in seconds, milliseconds, or microseconds. It the positive alternation and the negative. It should be noted should be noted that the time period of a cycle can change that the polarity of the voltage reverses for each half cycle. from one system to another; it is always said that the cycle Therefore, during the positive half cycle, the electron flow completes in 360° (related to the 360° of rotation of an AC is considered to be in one direction; during the negative half alternator). [Figure 9-13] cycle, the electrons reverse direction and flow the opposite way through the circuit. + Frequency Defined The frequency is the number of cycles of AC per second e (CPS). The standard unit of frequency measurement is the u e al Hz. [Figure 9-15] In a generator, the voltage and current 0 Averagevalue RMS valu Peak v peak value pomara sgcso ntnehtdr.u oTcuthgoehr napu acmsosbmeespr lueontfed cecyry cacl elens oofroft hrv eaaalnucdeh s s roeeuavctohhl u pttiiomolnee ooaff cttohhieel o- k-t coil or conductor is equal to the number of pairs of poles. a Average = 0.637 peak Pe RMS (effective) = 0.707 peak Peak to peak = 2 peaks 0° 90° 180° 270° 360° − 1T Figure 9-13. Values of AC. 1 second frequency = 2 cycles per second Cycle Defined A cycle is a completion of a pattern. Whenever a voltage 90° or current passes through a series of changes, returns to the 180° starting point, and then repeats the same series of changes, 0° the series is called a cycle. When the voltage values are 360° 270° graphed, as in Figure 9-14, the complete AC cycle is displayed. One complete cycle is often referred to as the sine 1 second frequency = 8 cycles per second wave and said to be 360°. It is typical to start the sine wave where the voltage is zero. The voltage then increases to a maximum positive value, decreases to a value of zero, then Figure 9-15. Frequency in cycles per second. 9-10