Italo Calvino and the organizational imagination: Reading social organization through urban metaphors Peter Case1 Professor of Organization Studies Bristol Business School University of the West of England And Hugo Gaggiotti Principal Lecturer in Organization Studies Bristol Business School University of the West of England 1 Author for correspondence: Peter Case, Bristol Business School University of the West of England Frenchay Campus Bristol BA16 1QY UK Tel: +44 (0) 117 3281709 Email: [email protected] Biographical Notes for Authors Peter Case is Professor of Organization Studies, Bristol Business School, University of the West of England. He also holds a part time chair at James Cook University, Australia, and a visiting professorship at the University of Leicester. His research interests encompass organization theory, organizational ethics and international development. He served as general editor of Culture & Organization (2007-10) and is currently a member of the editorial boards of Leadership, Leadership & Organizational Development Journal, Business & Society Review and the Journal of Management, Spirituality and Religion. He has published widely in such journals as Organization, Human Relations, Journal of Management Studies and Management Learning. His most recent book is Belief and Organization (2012, Palgrave Macmillan) co-edited with Heather Höpfl and Hugo Letiche. Hugo Gaggiotti is Principal Lecturer in Organization Studies, Bristol Business School, University of the West of England. He is general editor of Ar@cne and coeditor of dia-e- logos and served as general co-editor of Geocritica from 1997-2000. His main interest is in organizational ethnography and the application of narratology and discourse analysis to organizational representations of space, time and change. Recent publications include A place in a space: Narratives and urban organization in Latin American space (Un lugar en su sitio: narrativas y organización urbana en el espacio latinoamericano; 2006, Comunicación Social) and Gaggiotti, H. 2012. The rhetoric of synergy in a global corporation: Visual and oral narratives of mimesis and similarity. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 25 no. 2: 265-282. 1 Italo Calvino and the organizational imagination: reading social organization through urban metaphors Abstract This article explores the way in which uses or abuses of urban metaphors can inform differing polities and ethics of human organization. From its earliest inception, the city has taken on a metaphorical significance for human communities; being, at one and the same time, a discursive textual product of culture and, reciprocally, provider of artefacts and architecture that produces culture and meaning. The city can be interpreted as a trope that operates bi-directionally in cultural terms. It is a sign that can be worked to serve the principles of both metonymy and synecdoche. In metonymical or reductive form, the city has the propensity to become weighty and deadening. The work of Michael Porter on competitive strategy is invoked to illustrate this effect. In the guise of synecdoche, on the other hand, the city offers imaginative potential. Drawing inspiration from the literary works of Italo Calvino (in particular, his novel Invisible Cities) the article attempts to reveal the fecundity of the city for interpreting technologically- mediated organizational life. Calvino’s emphasis on the principle of ‘lightness’ provides a link to the social theoretical writing of Boltanski and Chiapello on the ‘projective city’. A synthesis of these two stylistically different literatures yields a novel way of critically approaching and understanding the reticular form and emerging ethics of contemporary human organization. Keywords: cities; urban; metaphor; imagination; organization theory; Italo Calvino 2 Italo Calvino and the organizational imagination: reading social organization through urban metaphors Introduction I have tried to remove weight, sometimes from people, sometimes from heavenly bodies, sometimes from cities; above all I have tried to remove weight from the structure of stories and from language (Calvino 1996 [1988]: 3). Conceptions of the city have played a central representational role in establishing the principles of organization within western civilization for at least two-and-a-half millennia. Ordering and governance of the Athenian metropolis, as found in the writings of Aristotle and Plato, for example, had a profound influence on subsequent general organizational practices of human collectives that persist to this day. The polity of Athens has, as it were, taken on an archetypal significance that casuistically extends to principles of governance in general (Jullien 2004). In our present age, cultural geographers have explored the relationship between the urban and its wider setting, arguing that landscapes and cityscapes are not only culturally produced, but that they also influence governing ideas of political, economic and religious life (Duncan 2005). Texts and discourse, in the broadest sense, are crucial to the production of human organizational relationships and to our definition and interpretation of non-human organizational relationships. The socially constitutive and pragmatic nature of language is emphasized by Wittgenstein who employs a city metaphor thus in his Philosophical Investigations: ‘(And how many houses or streets does it take before a town begins to be a town?) Our language can be seen as an ancient city: a maze of little streets and squares, of old and new houses, and of houses with additions from various periods; and this surrounded by 3 a multitude of new boroughs with straight regular streets and uniform houses’ (Wittgenstein 1978 [1953], para 18: 8). Others, such as Roland Barthes, have suggested a direct equivalence between city and text: ‘The city is a discourse, and this discourse is actually a language: the city speaks to its inhabitants, we speak our city, the city where we are, simply by inhabiting it, by traversing it, by looking at it’ (Barthes 1988 [1967]: 195). Cities in the future, cities in the past, cities in our imagination; our representation of urban spaces frames and shapes organizations and informs the decisions that result from these discursive collective productions (Czarniawska 2000, 2002). In this article we seek, through a literary sensibility inspired by the writing of Italo Calvino, to explore imaginative organizational and organizing possibilities suggested by the urban; in other words, to see organizing through a metaphorical urban lens. But what organizations do we image when, following Barthes, the urban world speaks to us? Generally, our urban images derive - in a relatively limited and limiting sense – from the mapping of space. As such they connote ideas of urban navigation, colonization, planning, control and governance. Western literature, however, has also been prolific in charting the imagined, invisible, subjective, and fantastic aspects of cities; images which - because of their ‘light’ and amorphous nature - have been relatively neglected by organizers whose paramount concerns have been with ‘weighty’ matters of utility and performativity (Lyotard 1984). Our purpose, here, is to redress this imbalance and to attempt to tease out a new set of organizational possibilities by, in the first instance, bringing together two strands of metaphorical thinking in relation to the urban; thinking drawn from the worlds of economics and literature respectively. Two dialogues are interrogated and juxtaposed here: Michael Porter, and his dialogue with the urban world of Sassuolo in relation to ‘strategic modelling’, and Italo Calvino’s fictional conversations with the cities of Kublai Khan’s empire. With respect to Calvino, we choose to focus, in particular, on his book Invisible Cities, as this is the work in which he most directly explores the textual and 4 representational possibilities of cities. We have read, compared and contrasted the original Italian edition (Calvino 1972) and a standard English translation (Calvino 1974) in order to advance our project. Calvino’s last published work (in English translation) Six Memos for the Next Millennium (Calvino 1996 [1988]) and McLaughlin (1998) were also consulted in order to trace autobiographical influences on his textual attitude toward cities and literary strategies. The article begins with an interpretative account of Invisible Cities and the selective use of images from the text to generate a critique of the weightiness and fixity of an influential economic model of organizing. The work of Michael Porter, in particular his ‘diamond’ model, based on the idea of how cities can contribute to the development of competitive advantage in a given region, serves to illustrate how imagination and, by implication, politics and ethics can be ‘bureaucratized’. We then explain how Calvino, too, invokes the image of a diamond but, unlike Porter, uses the metaphor to introduce lightness into his cosmos of urban organization. We then proceed to a brief exegesis of Boltanski and Chiapello (2005) focussing on their sociological use of the city in understanding the complexity of justification and governance within modern and post- modern social orders. This is followed by a consideration of Calvino’s interpretation of the reticular and virtual – central aspects of lightness within the projective city – which are taken up explicitly by Bauman (2000, 2003) in his conception of ‘liquid modernity’. The article intentionally adopts a reflexive textual strategy to weave and fabricate partial connections through its exegesis and critique of differing disciplinary takes on the urban. What serves to integrate these deliberate lines of flight is a thread of interpretative sensibility deriving from the writing and imagination of Calvino. We conclude, therefore, by reflecting back on the narrative fabric we produce and making a case for seeing organizing creatively and non-reductively through a Calvino-inspired lens of urban imagination. 5 Calvino’s Invisible Cities Invisible Cities organizes itself around an imagined (anachronistic) dialogue between the merchant, Marco Polo, and Kublai Khan, emperor of a vast oriental empire. All the timeless exchanges take place in one of the emperor’s palace gardens. At first Marco relates, in a seemingly inexorable flow, story upon story of cities that populate Kublai Khan’s empire. But as the narrative unfolds, there occurs a subtle but definite reversal whereby the emperor himself starts to imagine various cities and asks Marco merely to confirm the verisimilitude of these accounts. In other words, the narrative focus shifts from Marco’s ‘empirical’ tales of cities to the emperor’s ‘imaginary’ cities, all of which occurs, reflexively, within a general fictional context. Calvino uses the text to explore – in an intellectually knowing and sophisticated fashion – the possibilities and impossibilities of language and semiotics in relation to a set of deep philosophical questions. The themes that he pursues in Invisible Cities are too numerous to catalogue in detail here, but they revolve around a series of fundamental dualities which might be summarized thus: reality/fiction, material/virtual, map/terrain, signifier/signified, life/death, embodiment/disembodiment, metaphorical/literal, manifest/latent, visibility/invisibility, habitation/inhabitation, continuity/discontinuity, utopia/dystopia, lightness/weight. These polarities are not set up as structural or incommensurable dichotomies, but become - through Calvino’s skilful tropical play with irony, metonymy and synecdoche - intertwined and open to infinite reversibility. The relentless flow of city narratives are proffered in epigrammatic prose that is at once sumptuous, delicate and endlessly evocative. Calvino remarks, reflexively, on his own epigrammatic style in Six Memos thus, ‘… I dream of immense cosmologies, sagas, and epics all reduced to the dimensions of an epigram… I would like to edit a collection of tales consisting of one sentence only, or even a single line’ (1996 [1988]: 51). Psychoanalytic themes of desire, sex, dream and the unconscious are woven together with what might be thought of as a realist anthropology of city organization and 6 institution: economy, trade, merchandise, brothels, prisons, slavery and so on. These microcosmic dimensions of the city are overlaid with metaphysical preoccupations - temporality, destiny, mysticism, futility – to form an intensely rich and profound exploration of the human condition. As a way of attenuating such fecundity for the purposes of this article, we have chosen to focus exclusively on the imaginative possibilities that Calvino’s cities present for modes of organizing. We contend that a reading of Calvino’s city narratives can help to regenerate the way we understand and enact organization. Metaphorical uses of the city: ubiquity and reduction Metaphor has long been the subject of interest and debate within organization studies (Alvesson 1993; Cornelissen 2004; Oswick and Grant 1996), following its popular and influential use by Gareth Morgan in his Images of Organization (Morgan 1986). Morgan has also suggested that metaphor can be used creatively to reshape organizational theory and practice (Morgan 1989). Literature in the organization studies field suggests that metaphors could be intrinsic and inevitable to organizing (Cornelissen 2004, Cornelissen et. al. 2005; Grant and Oswick 1996; Putnam et al. 1996; Putnam and Boys 2006) and also for the practice of organizational theorizing (Weick 1989). Corneilssen (2006), following Weick (1989), has suggested that organizational theory construction has to follow a process of ‘disciplined imagination’, shifting from a rule base generation to a topology of metaphors that help to create variations in the way of imagining. Our point is that while metaphor operates ubiquitously within both everyday and specialist discourse (Lakoff and Johnson 1980) the relative value of its usage varies considerably. Within organization studies, for example, we find many metaphors employed to aid understanding and promote enactment of organizational relationships 7 at different levels of analysis: geo-political, macro-economic, institutional, departmental and individual. Some of these even use the image of the city explicitly for performative effect. We argue, however, that such metaphorical explorations seem often to necessitate what Burke (1968: 225-9) refers to as the ‘bureaucratization of the imaginative’. In other words, viewed from our reading of Calvino, metaphors found in organization theory frequently invoke and infuse ‘weight’ into their rendering of organizational relationships and, as a consequence, rapidly become moribund. Think of the deadening propensity of Maslow’s pyramidal ‘hierarchy of motivational needs’ (Maslow 1954), for example, or Handy’s fourfold ‘cultural typology’ of organization (Handy 1977) in the context of their being endlessly reproduced in organizational behaviour lectures to successive years of hapless first-year undergraduates. While instances of deadening metaphor can be found proliferating throughout the organization studies literature, it is the performativity (Lyotard 1984) of certain economically informed models of organization that impose the most pronounced limitations and stultifying effects on the organizational imagination. It is not that economic thinking, in general, should play no part in developing the field of organization studies (although, clearly, there has been and still is protracted debate concerning what form that economic thinking might take (McCloskey 1995). Rather, it is the metonymical reduction that is so often entailed in economic modelling, coupled with its unquestionable dominance of mainstream business and administrative discourse that, we suggest, effectively squeezes out and marginalizes organizational imagination. We find support and justification for exploring the relationship between literature and economics in the writings of McCloskey (1990, 1995, 1998). Following McCloskey, we note that concepts like ‘cities’, ‘markets’, ‘companies’, and so forth, are not intrinsically or essentially economic, literary, social theoretical or philosophical. Rather they are subjects, concepts, words or metaphors employed in discourses and analyses to imagine and, by implication, instantiate various forms of social relations; be this through 8 economics, literature, social theory, philosophy or any other genre of expression. McCloskey (1990), for example, does not distinguish between genres when discussing authorial intentions: In a well-done novel or a well-done scientific paper we agree to submit to the authorial intentions, so far as we can make them out … [and] the argument can be pushed further. An economist expounding a result creates both an ‘authorial audience’ (an imagined group of readers who know that this is fiction) and a ‘narrative audience’ (an imagined group who do not). (1990: 12) A similar argument can also be made about relative precision and self-criticism. By engaging in a particular representational act using natural scientific or mathematical methods, McCloskey (1998: 6) contends that the result could be ‘less precise and less self-critical than the better dress designer’. In other words, science and mathematics cannot necessarily make privileged claims regarding precision or critique vis-a-vis artistic endeavours. It is a matter of invoking inter-subjectively different criteria in differing representational contexts. For McCloskey, moreover, modes of explanation are more blended in economics than in other natural and social sciences. The discipline of economics can be seen as simultaneously a science and as an expression of literacy culture while, in equal measure, literary culture could be viewed through the lens of economic science. What draws together economic, literary, social theoretical or philosophical readings of social organization for McCloskey (1998) is the art of rhetoric. In her critique of Posner’s Economics Analysis of Law, for instance, terms like ‘allocate’, ‘maximize’, ‘value’, and ‘scarcity’, ‘are technical words in economics, with precise definitions’, which are used by Posner ‘in wider senses, to evoke scientific power, to claim precision without necessarily using it’ (McCloskey 1998: 3). 9