Burial customs, the afterlife and pollution BURIAL CUSTOMS, THE AFTERLIFE AND THE POLLUTION OF DEATH IN ANCIENT GREECE ABSTRACT Funerary practices in ancient Greece were influenced by contemporary views on the afterlife and by concepts of pollution, but also by a desire to limit costs and a need to prevent the process of burial from causing inconvenience to the community or providing an opportunity for exploitation by those with ulterior political motives. Plato (Hippias Maior 291d and e) defined the ideal of any Greek as to be rich, healthy and honoured; to live to a grand old age; to bury his parents with honour, and ultimately to be buried in turn by his own children with due respect. This study investigates the views on disposing of the dead which were prevalent from the 8th to the 4thcentury BC in Greece, and in Attica in particular. The sources consulted include Homer’s epic poems, archaeological data and vase paintings, as well as the writings of later historians, philosophers and other prominent people. 1. THE VIEW OF THE AFTERLIFE There was never complete Pan-Hellenic uniformity on the concept of the hereafter, or more specifically Hades, but there were reasonably widely accepted mainstream thoughts and theories which reveal a clear line of development from the time of Homer to the Classical era (Gar- land 1985:1-12). Although there were thus divergent views on the immortality of the soul and related issues, particularly during the Clas- sical era (Kurtz & Boardman 1971:330-3), the prevailing view onthe existence of the hereafter may be outlined as follows. During the moment of death, the soul (psuche) leaves the body via the mouth or, if appropriate, via an open war wound. According to Homer other elements, namely the thumos(from the heart) and the vital spirit (aion) in the case of young people, also escape from the body but play no further role. The corpse which remains simply decomposes and is of no further importance (Sourvinou-Inwood 1995:61-3, 323-330). 44 Acta Theologica Supplementum 7 2005 2. HADES From the Odyssey, which dates from the late 8thcentury BC, we learn that Hades is a dark, subterranean place (Od. 11.18-19). All human beings were believed to be mortal, although there was a single excep- tion: King Menelaos, who appears to have been transported directly to Elysium without dying (Hom. Od. 3.236-8; 4.561-5). One could take various routes to Hades, for instance by travelling through dark subterranean passages, or by sailing far to the west and over the edge of Okeanos(the Western Sea), which encircled the world. Hades was also encircled by water, which was at times described as a sea (Okeanos), at times as rivers. The Styx was the most famous of these, but there were also the Acheron, the Cocytus and the Puriphlegethon (Hom. Od. 10.501-2; Sourvinou-Inwood 1995:56-63). On arrival at Hades, the soul would be prevented from crossing the water before its body had been buried — the souls within would instruct it to wait in the neutral territory across the water. Hades would eventually be entered by a gate where the many-headed canine monster Cerberus kept watch, devouring any beings which attempted to leave (Hesiod Theogony767- 75; Sourvinou-Inwood 1995:106-7, 309). Within Hades, the soul lived a neutral, undifferentiated shadow- existence, without personal characteristics or understanding. There was no reward or punishment for earthly action, and no contact with the living (Hom. Od. 11.476; Garland 1985:1-2). However, Sourvinou-Inwood (1995:66-70) has shown that the Homeric epics contain certain contradictions about the nature of the Underworld. She suggests that Homer initially collated the original tales from the pre-Homeric era, but that there had been certain alter- ations even in his own time; that the early and the later components of the poems therefore do not reflect the opinions of a single era, and that certain texts, such as book 24 of the Odyssey, were written later, during the archaic era (Sourvinou-Inwood 1995:94-103). The Homeric poems (even apart from Od. 24) thus provide examples of souls in Hades which do recognise one another (Od. 11.542-67), of the development of hierarchies (Od. 11.489-91), of the punishment of transgressors (Iliad 3.276-80; 19.359-60; Od. 11 passim), and even of Odysseus visiting Hades to contact his old friends (Od. 11.485-6). Souls in Hades are 45 Burial customs, the afterlife and pollution also aware of friendly or inimical rituals performed at their graves (Gar- land 1985:4). It has also been contended that the concept of Elysium (Paradise) is not Minoan in origin, but may be ascribed to Homer (Sourvinou-Inwood 1995:32-56). In the Archaic era (from the 8thto the 6thcentury BC) the concept of the afterlife underwent a significant change. Two accompanying fi- gures (psuchopompoi) emerge at this time, with the function of taking the soul to Hades. According to the Odyssey(24.98-100), Hermes (he also had the cult- names Kullenios and Chthonion), the messenger of the gods, now receives the souls of the dead from Thanatos, the agent of death, and, bearing his staff (kerukeion), accompanies them along an established route to the Underworld. A soul may now enter Hades even before its body has been buried, but is only completely integrated after the burial. Hermes is the only god who may descend to the Underworld (Sourvinou-Inwood 1995:103-6). The boatman Charon appears on the scene at a later period than Hermes. He is not mentioned in books 11 and 24 of the Odyssey, and probably derives from the (lost) epic tale of Minuas from the late 7th century BC. Charon ferries the souls delivered to him by Hermes across the water (the river Acheron or Styx, or the lake Acherousia) to Hades (Fig. 6), where Cerberus continues to guard the entrance (Sourvinou- Inwood 1995:303-320). Within Hades the souls are no longer undifferentiated, insight- less beings; they now know what is happening in the land of the living. Heroes are now reverenced and there is punishment for certain trans- gressions of life (e.g. oath-breaking). Souls can communicate with one another, although this usually requires the drinking of sacrificial blood (Hom. Il. 24.591-5; Od. 11.35-43). Garland (1985:10) describes Hades as gradually becoming a more pleasant place, with the distance be- tweenthe dead and the living decreasing. No longer must all men die; some are taken directly to Elysium without passing through Hades (Sourvinou-Inwood 1995:106-7). In the Classical era (the 5th and 4th centuries BC), the role of the psuchopompoiis extended. Hermes does not merely accompany souls to Hades, but sometimes facilitates their temporary return to the living. 46 Acta Theologica Supplementum 7 2005 Figure 6: Charon in his boat on the river Styx. Wood engraving by G. Doré (1860) illustrating Dante’s Inferno. 47 Burial customs, the afterlife and pollution He also operates as a go-between (kêruks), sensitising souls to messages from the living (Sourvinou-Inwood 1995:304-5). Necromancy begins to flourish (Garland 1985:3) and the use of katadesmoidevelops. These were tablets inscribed with curses, placed in graves so that the dead would cast curses from the Underworld upon the living (Garland 1985: 6). From 500 BC Charon’s image appears regularly on vases placed beside graves (Sourvinou-Inwood 1995:321-4). The tradition of plac- ing a coin (obol) in the mouth of the deceased, for Charon’s fee, is a relatively late development; the earliest literary reference to it is in the Frogs of Aristophanes (line 140) (Garland 1985:23). The concept of Elysium (Paradise) develops significantly in the 5th and particularly in the 4thcentury BC, and is associated with the for- mation of religious groups (Garland 1985:18; Sourvinou-Inwood 1995:424-5). Initially, the chosen who did not die were believed to be transported directly to Elysium, but much later the view emerges that a tribunal of “judges” (Rhadamanthus, Minos or Triptolemus and Aeacus) (Fig. 7) would pronounce sentence on all souls in Hades, sending the just to Elysium but condemning the rest to punishment in the part of Hades known as Tartarus (Morford & Lenardon 1995:295). 3. THE POLLUTION OF DEATH The idea that death (like birth) involved a form of cultural/religious contamination for those involved was general in the ancient world, although its precise scope varied from area to area and from time to time. This contamination was not based primarily on considerations of hygiene, but on the view that the act was repulsive to the gods. Thus births and deaths were not permitted in holy places such as temples, or on the island of Delos. Precisely how such contamination affected individuals is not always clear, but it was believed to prevent their con- tact with the gods until the appropriate purification had been under- gone. Pollution was also believed to apply to a period of mourning. The correct procedure for dealing with it was, in part, a matter of law (Parker 1985:32-4). (The complex origin of the concept of pollution will be addressed below.) The house (or equivalent area) affected by a death was regarded as polluted. Water in the house was automatically contaminated, as was 48 Acta Theologica Supplementum 7 2005 Figure 7: The three judges of the Underworld: Rhadamanthus, Triptolemus and Aeacus. Apulian vase, 4thcentury B.C. Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Munich. 49 Burial customs, the afterlife and pollution the fireplace in certain regions. When a death occurred on the street, that whole zone of the city had to be purified (Demosthenes Against Macartatus 43.51-8; Parker 1983:35-8). Everyone touching a corpse or entering a house in which there had been a death was contaminated, as were all those who touched them. Certain close family members (as stipulated in the law) were auto- matically affected (Parker 1983:38-40). At one time, when a king of Sparta died, each household was expected to identify a man and a woman as contaminated by the death (Her. Hist. 6.58.1). Deceased strangers, slaves and children caused less pollution, and a dead baby could only contaminate if it were fully formed (Parker 1983:41-2; Marshall 2000: 9, 10, 15). Heroes, founders of communities and soldiers who died on the battlefield caused little or no pollution. This was also the case, surpri- singly enough, with executed criminals (Marshall 2000:12, 13; Parker 1983:42, 46). Graves (other than those of heroes) caused little pollution, but the bones and relics of the dead could contaminate. Feasts for the dead, such as the Anthesteria (which the deceased were traditionally believed to attend) could be a source of minor pollution (Marshall 2000:12; Parker 1983:38-9). 4. LEGISLATION ON BURIALS The mythological first king of Athens, Cecrops, was traditionally be- lieved to have instituted the original funeral rites (Cicero De Legibus. II.25-63). Plutarch (Lycurgus27) claims that in about the 8thcentury BC the legendary Lycurgus, king of Sparta, attempted to demytho- logise the process of death by approving burials within cities along with prominent funeral edifices in the vicinity of holy places. Corpses were to be buried simply in a red shroud, covered with olive leaves, and without funeral oblations. Except in the case of soldiers, names were not permitted to be carved on gravestones. The mourning period was also limited to eleven days, after which a sacrifice was to be offered to Demeter. Women were asked to lament loud and long at the graveside. In contrast to this, later legislation took cognisance of the pollu- tion of death. In general, legislators attempted to organise the burial procedure in a dignified manner but without causing inconvenience 50 Acta Theologica Supplementum 7 2005 to the general public. The misuse of a funeral to attract attention (par- ticularly for political reasons) was forbidden, as were extreme pomp and excessive expenditure (Garland 1989:1-3). In the 6th century BC, according to Demosthenes (Mac. 43.62), Cicero (Leg. II. 25.63) and Plutarch (Solon21), Solon passed detailed laws which remained in force for a very long time and, according to Cicero, were later incorporated practically unchanged into the Roman Twelve Table Laws. In the main, these were rules for the preparation of the corpse indoors (prothesis), the pre-dawn funeral procession (ekphora), the burial and cremation ceremonies, the sacrifices at the grave, and the mourning process, as well as later visits to the grave. He did not specifically restrict the adornment of graves or mention the pollution of death in any detail, probably because the tradition for dealing with this was already solidly established. Later orators (Demosthenes Mac. 43.57-8) claim that he also passed regulations concerning corpses on the street and how to treat cases of death by suicide. It is possible that Solon instituted theGenesia(the annual festival of the dead on a par- ticular day) in order to relieve the chaos caused by individual com- memorations of the birthdays of the deceased at the gravesides (Gar- land 1989:4). Plutarch (Solon12.8) also claims that at this time Epi- menides took steps to limit the excessive lamentation of women be- cause it was being exploited by opposing families and politicians (Garland 1989:3-5). According to Cicero (Leg. II.64), Solon’s laws were extended later in the 6thcentury BC by legislation which, among other things, sig- nificantly limited the size of graves and their adornment. These post aliquando laws of about 530 BC (Kurtz & Boardman 1971:121-41) were probably passed by Peisistratus (and later by Cleisthenes) and, among other things, forbade any constructions larger than ten workers could erect in three days. At about this time, painted terracotta plaques disappeared from graves; after 500 BC these were followed by archaic memorial columns (stelai) (Garland 1989:5-7). In the late 6thcentury BC Charondes of Katana forbade excessive mourning at graves and suggested that this be replaced by joyous offerings of fruit (Garland 1989:8). In the 5thcentury BC, in Delphi, a policy statement issued by the Labuade family forbade ostentatious 51 Burial customs, the afterlife and pollution funeral rituals, ordaining that processions should move quietly and without interruption to the grave; that mourning could take place only at the grave of the deceased itself, and that annual commemorations of the death should be restricted (Garland 1989:8-9). At about the same time, Solon’s laws were reconfirmed at Iulis on Keos; the abuse of fu- neral arrangements for political or family purposes was forbidden; purification rituals were revised, and the triakosta (the festival of the thirtieth day) was abandoned (Garland 1989:11-13). By 430 BC Attic memorial columns began to appear, followed in due course by larger and more ostentatious edifices on graves and ex- tensive funeral rituals. In the late 4thcentury BC, Demetrius of Pha- lerum passed laws which did not only restrict excesses at funerals as well as large grave structures, but also allowed for the appointment of special functionaries to impose fines. This bore fruit almost imme- diately (Cic. Leg. 2.60; Garland 1989:8). In the 4thcentury BC Plato (Leg. 958d-960c) refers to legislation on funerals which determines, among other things, that any uncer- tainty about sacred rites should be referred to a designated official for judgement; that graves could not be situated on agricultural land; that structures on graves could not be larger than five workers could erect in five days; that gravestones could include only four “heroic lines of inscription”; that the ekphorahad to be orderly, and to have progressed outside the city walls by daybreak, and that special regulations would apply to the burials of suicides, murderers and other violent criminals, as well as to state funerals. 5. FUNERAL RITES IN THE CLASSICAL ERA The Attic tradition, unlike that of the other Grecian city-states, was for its citizens to be buried at home. To forbid the burial of a citizen of Attica in his homeland was thus a very severe punishment (Kurtz & Boardman 1971:142). However, and probably as a result of this general legislation, the literature contains few descriptions of specific burials, as Garland (1985:28) has shown. Archaeological discoveries and the study of relevant illustrations on the vases which were typi- cally left at graves can tell us more. It was generally accepted that corpses — even those of enemies — should be properly buried. To neglect to 52 Acta Theologica Supplementum 7 2005 perform this duty could expose one to divine punishment, although this fear had declined considerably by the Classical era (Parker 1983: 43-5). The typical funeral rites may be outlined as follows. 5.1 Preparation of the body (prothesis) By law, the prothesishad to take place indoors, normally in the house of death. The body was washed, salved, clothed (typically in white or red material) (Parker 1983:3-5) and adorned with a crown, ribbons and flowers; jewels were seldom used. This task was usually performed by close female relatives over the age of sixty. Forms of mummification were known but seldom used (Garland 1985:34). The corpse wasthen placed on a bed made of planks (klinê) covered by a cloth (stroma), with the head on a pillow and the feet facing the door. According to Plato (Leg. 959) the corpse was left in this position long enough (usually a day) to be sure that the person was indeed dead and to provide an opportunity for the traditional respects to be paid. Pictures on vases show us men approaching the corpse with their right hands raised, while women beat their heads and breasts. The women’s lamentation was sometimes augmented by paid musicians (usually girls) who performed on the flute, harp and lyre at a set rate (Aristotle Athenian Constitution 50). Professional mourners (particularly Carian women) were discouraged. Since the water in the house was considered to be polluted, a large jar of clean water from elsewhere was placed by the door so that the contaminated mourners could wash as they departed. This also warned passers-by that there had been a death in the house. Special branchesor leaves do not appear to have been affixed for this purpose (Parker 1983:35). 5.2 The funeral procession (ekphora) The corpse was usually carried to the grave outside the city walls be- fore daybreak on the third day. Initially, this was done by family or friends (with a cart drawn by a horse or a mule), but later paid corpse- bearers were hired. The corpse was covered with a cloth, except for the head, in accordance with the law. 53