Building-Integrated Solar Energy Systems Building-Integrated Solar Energy Systems Robert E. Parkin CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed on acid-free paper Version Date: 20161118 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-2776-1 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Contents About the Author Preface 1 Energy Sources, Energy Uses, and Global Warming 1.1 History of Fossil Fuels 1.2 Composition of Fossil Fuels 1.3 Fossil Fuels, Uses and Reserves 1.4 Environmental Costs of Fossil Fuels 1.5 Energy Usage and Income 1.6 Planet Earth 1.7 Direct Solar Energy 1.8 Indirect Solar Energy 1.8.1 Winds of the World 1.8.2 Wave Power 1.8.3 Hydroelectric Power 1.8.4 The Biomass and Biofuel Potential 1.9 Other Energy Sources 1.9.1 Tidal Power 1.9.2 Geothermal Energy 1.9.3 Nuclear Power 1.10 Energy Use in the United States 1.10.1 Energy in the Industrial Sector 1.10.2 Transportation in the Modern World 1.10.3 The Commercial and Residential Sectors 1.10.4 Food Production 1.11 Global Warming 1.11.1 Greenhouse Gases 1.11.2 The Effects of Greenhouse Gases 2 The Internal Environment of a Residence 2.1 Electrical Use and Its Contribution to Sensible Heat 2.2 Human Needs and Demands in a Residence 2.3 Temperature Levels 2.4 Ventilation Guidelines 2.4.1 Air Changes per Hour 2.4.2 Air Velocity 2.4.3 Relative Humidity 2.4.4 Air Infiltration 2.4.5 Air Flow through Exterior Doors 2.4.6 Respiration and Carbon Dioxide 2.5 Heat Recovery Ventilation 2.6 Humidity Sources in a Residence 2.7 Sick Building Syndrome and VOC Mitigation 2.8 Illumination and Daylighting 2.9 Domestic Water Usage 2.10 Electrical Fixtures and Appliances in a Residence 2.10.1 ENERGY STAR Appliances 2.10.2 Electrically Generated Lighting 2.11 Noise Control 2.12 Return on Investment and Service Life 3 Heat Flow from a Residence 3.1 Thermal Terms 3.2 Empirical Nature of Heat Loss Calculations 3.3 Fundamentals of Glazing Losses 3.4 Heat Flow Across an Air Gap 3.5 Thermal Resistance R and Conductance C 3.6 Windows 3.6.1 Heat Loss Through Windows 3.6.2 Spacers and Their Influence on Heat Loss 3.7 Heat Losses from a Residence 3.7.1 Heat Losses through Walls and Roofs 3.7.2 Heat Losses through Structural Integrated Panels 3.7.3 Heat Losses from Basements and Foundations 4 Residential Construction Techniques 4.1 Fire, Civilization, and Simple Dwellings 4.2 Construction Techniques for Exterior Walls 4.2.1 Wooden Walls 4.2.2 The Development of Plywood 4.2.3 Bamboo and Other Grasses 4.2.4 Stud Wall Construction 4.2.5 Structural Integrated Panels 4.3 Masonry Walls 4.3.1 Brick Wall Construction 4.3.2 Poured Concrete Foundations and Walls 4.3.3 Concrete Block Walls 4.3.4 Rock Construction 4.3.5 Earthen Materials 4.3.6 Insulated Concrete Formwork 4.3.7 The AAC Block Wall 4.4 Insulation, Types and Installation Methods 4.4.1 Fiberglass Batts 4.4.2 Cellulose Insulation 4.4.3 Urea Formaldehyde Foam 4.4.4 Foam and Foam Board 4.4.5 Multi-Layer Radiant Barriers 4.4.6 The EIFS Insulation System 4.5 Roofs, Construction and Problems 4.5.1 Roof Construction Techniques 4.5.2 Unwanted Heat and Humidity Flow through Roofs 4.5.3 Roof Problems 4.6 Sealing and Insulating Basements 4.7 Water Damage and Vapor Migration in a Residence 4.8 Air Infiltration 4.8.1 Air Leakage from Conditioned Spaces 4.8.2 Air Leakage around Windows 4.8.3 Air Leakage around Electrical Outlets, Switches, and Lights 4.9 Energy Codes and Their Effect on Construction Methods 4.10 Errors in Energy Codes 4.11 Insulation Guidelines and Their Influence on Construction 5 The Seasons and Solar Angles 5.1 Obliquity and the Seasons 5.2 The Importance of Time 5.3 Longitude 5.4 The Julian Calendar 5.5 Geometry of the Ellipse and Kepler 5.6 Points, Vectors, and Planes 5.7 Rotation of Vectors 5.8 The Obliquity Vector 5.9 Angle of the Sun on the Earth’s Surface 5.10 Angle of the Sun on Solar Collectors 5.11 The Solar Collection Day 5.12 Change in Solar Angle With Time 5.13 Seasonal Angles 5.14 Equation of Time and Sundials 5.15 The Analemma and How to Capture It 5.16 Approximating the EoT 6 Transmission of Light through the Atmosphere 6.1 The Incoming Solar Radiation 6.2 Solar Radiation in the Atmosphere 6.3 Air Mass and Dimming 6.4 Rayleigh Scattering 6.5 Mie Scattering 6.6 Solar Radiation Measures 6.7 Instruments for Measuring Solar Radiation 6.7.1 Pyranometers 6.7.2 Other Radiation Measurement Instruments 6.8 Isotropic and Circumsolar Radiation 7 Solar Gain and Solar Attenuation 7.1 Solar Fraction and Solar Gain 7.2 Albedo and Specularity 7.3 Air Temperature, Pressure, and Clouds 7.4 Models for Radiation Dispersion in the Atmosphere 7.5 Solar Radiation Data for Boston 7.6 Clear Sky Radiation Data for U.S. Cities 7.7 Solar Radiation Maps of the World 8 Transmission of Solar Energy through Glazing 8.1 A Brief History of Glass 8.2 Transmissivity of Diathermanous Materials to Light 8.3 The Polarization of Light 8.4 Fresnel’s Equations 8.5 Extinction Coefficient and Absorptivity of Glass 8.6 Transmission, Reflection, and Absorption 8.7 Transmission and Absorption for Normal Radiation 8.8 Daily Solar Gain through Glazing 8.9 Transmissivity through LoE Glass 8.9.1 Standard LoE Glass 8.9.2 New Generation LoE Glass 9 Climate and the Siting of a Solar Structure 9.1 The Köppen Climate Classification 9.2 Climates Zones by the Number 9.3 Monthly Averages for Heating and Cooling 9.4 Other Data Sources for HDD and CDD 9.5 Southern Exposure 9.6 Magnetic Declination 9.7 Visibility Distances 9.8 Design With Nature 9.9 Clearances on Flat Sites 9.9.1 Individual Residences 9.9.2 Communities of Solar Homes 9.10 Clearances on Sloping Sites 9.11 Wind Protection 10 Solar Structures from Early to Modern 10.1 Double Glazing 10.2 Historic Use of Solar Heating 10.3 Solar Heating for Residences in the United States 10.4 Solar Heating for Residences in the Rest of the World 10.5 Efficient Building Envelopes 10.6 The Passivehaus Design 11 Passive Solar Collection 11.1 Solar Gain on Vertical Collectors with Non-Zero Yaw Angles 11.2 Solar Gain Through Glass 11.3 Shading 11.4 Absorption of Glass — Not All Is Lost 11.5 Solar Blinds 11.6 Thermal Storage 11.6.1 Direct Storage 11.6.2 Rock Storage 11.6.3 Trombe Walls 11.6.4 Water Storage 11.6.5 Eutectic Salts 11.7 Solar Stills 11.8 Solar Cookers and Ovens 11.9 Solar Water Heaters 12 Non-Concentrating, Active Solar Collectors 12.1 Solar Gain on Sloping Surfaces 12.2 Air Collectors 12.3 Liquid Carrying Flat Plate Solar Collectors 12.3.1 Trickle Type Collectors 12.3.2 Closed Loop and Fully Wetted Collectors 12.4 Stratified Water Tanks 12.5 Selective Absorptivity/Emissivity Surfaces 12.5.1 A Statement of the Problem 12.5.2 Some Early Results 12.5.3 Cermat Surfaces 12.5.4 Selective Coating Films 12.5.5 Optically Selective Paints and Sprays 12.6 The Bread Box Solar Collector 12.7 Evacuated Tube Collectors 12.8 Heat Pipes 13 Photovoltaic Panels 13.1 Semiconductor Fundamentals 13.2 p-n Junctions 13.3 The First Transistors 13.4 The Field Effect Transistor 13.5 Photovoltaic Cells 13.6 Energy in Photons 13.7 Responses of First through Third Generation PV Cells 13.8 Perovskite Solar Cells 13.9 Building Integrated Photovoltaics 13.10 Temperature Sensitivity 13.11 Concentrating Photovoltaic Arrays 14 Smart Grids, FiTs, and Net Metering 14.1 History of Electrical Utilities