British imperialism in Cyprus artwork 3/3/09 10:06 am Page 1 British imperialism Birni tCisyhp riumsp earritalwiosrmk i n3 /C3yp/r0u9s a1r0t:w0or6k a m3 / 3P/a0g9e 110:06 am Page 1 British imperialism in Cyprus artwork 3/3/09 10:06 am Page 1 British imperialism in Cyprus artwork 3/3/09 10:06 am Page 1 British imperialism in Cyprus artwork 3/3/09 10:06 am Page 1 SSttuuddiieess iinn iimmppeerriiaalliissmm SSttuuddiieess iinn iimmppeerriiaalliissmm SSttuuddiieess iinn iimmppeerriiaalliissmm General editor:John M.MacKenzie SSttuuddGeiineeerssal eiidnnito r:iiJmmoSShttnppu uMeedd.rrMiieeiiasscaaK iillennniiz ssiiiemmmmppeerriiaalliissmm SSttuuddiieess iinn iimmppeerriiaalliissmm General editor: John M.MacKenzie General editor:John M.MacKenzie General editor:John M.MacKenzie General editor:John M.MacKenzie This book explores the tTehniss iobonosk euxnpdloerersl ytihneg teBnrsiiotnissh u nidmerplyeinrgi aBlirsitmish iinm peCriyalpisrmu sin. Cyprus. Much has been written aboMutu cthh hea sB breietnis whr iEttmenp aibroeu’ts tcheo Bnrsittirshu Ecmtipoirne ’so cuotnssitdruec tEioun roouptseid,e Europe, yet there is little on the same themes in Britain’s tiny empire in ‘Europe’.This This book exployreet st htehree ist elinttslieo nosn tuhned searsmtluyediy n teghx pelBmorreeisst wi sihnhe tBhiermri ttpaheien ar’ssis autlmiinspymti oe nmsi napn dirC fein ydipnin rg‘sEu musa.rdoep aeb’o.uTt himisperial rule study explores whether theo uatssisdue mEuprotipoe nhso lda ntrdu ef iinn da i‘nEugrso pmeaand sep aaceb’o.ut imperial rule Much has been written about the British Empire’s construction outside Europe, This book exploroeust stihdee Etuenrosipoen sh ouldn dterurley ining aB ‘Eruitrisohp eiamnp sepraiacleis’m. in Cyprus. yMetu cthh ehraes bies elnit twlerT ithotiesnn btahobeoo kus ta emtxhpeel oBtrhreietsims hteh Esem itnpeVei rxnaBerpsner’isanoiv tdcanaa osbicnl neh u’sasbrtn atrsctdu kienwcCrtyaylitpy oereirunn msb g’soy puepBxitrrrposeliigatdri ineseiisnhn sEg ‘ufhiErmooruwompr p etohear ep,i paeUel’inrs.ciomTenivh eJadiicsn k i mcCapmeyrepia rtl ou asfsl.yse ot vetor thane The inconsequential syteutd tyh eerxep ilso rliettsl ew MoVhnauer ctnthhha eveh aars s at cmbhheeeae r anttsh sws eumrCimteytpspe rntiuni oas b’Bnso rsiu pitsatarlan iontndhdg’s e ra fe nitBnsdins rdw yiti hnifeysrghomas fmtE pemmri r teaaph diirripnteeye -’‘sfaEri vbccueeooryionevuaspetrtdes r i’ mut.hTicempt hiBepoirsreintiir saohial ulwr tausaniltsdeesed e tiEt ulotrowoe praeedn,. Cyprus’s The inconsequential This book explores the tensions underlying British imperialism in Cyprus. osututdsiyd eex Epluorroeps ew hhyeeeoxttlph dteeh nrte rdtruahebee li esai n slbis taautc lm‘ekE pwuotarnioto entprhse e baa nysn da emi smxfpieppnao ldarctithineaneng’ic.nmse g me wshaa osdi nwae lw Batarbhyisoet a muiUtno rn’isemi otipminnea ygrJi ainaecelmdk r tpuchialarenme reien atl o‘aEn ufdlr yow opasve ee’.nrTm thehsisheed within possession study explores whether thew aidsesluy mhepldt iocunltsu raanl dsi gfninifiderisn gasn dm maydthes .aEbxoamutin iinmg pCeyrpirauls ’sr uslteat us as an Much has been written about the British Empire’s construction outside Europe, outside Europe hoisldla ntrdu ean idn aw ‘hEyuraoftpeera nth siprtayc`-eifni’cv.oensyeqeuaernsti atl hpoes sBesrsiitoins`h r ewveaalns tmeudch iatb oloutw reearseodns. oCf sytpatreu,cso’snstruction Varnava charts oiCmutypspoidrreuta sEn’suc reop pwreoa gsh roaelldsws ta ryufsre om imnoo fra pe a‘o E liiucmpyr oeaangrpdicen etaehnidev esctopdhna tacinniegm e’.rnpecieaeslr ioaafn li mda pewsrsiaaels tg oevtneormn aenascneh.e Gdo vwernitmheinnts do not The ipnocsosenssseioqnuential ysteutd tyh eerxep lios rleitst lwe hoent htehre t hsaem aess tuhmepmteiosn isn aBnrdi tfainind’sin tgisn ym eamdep iarbeo iunt ‘ Eimurpoepreia’l. Truhlies eiVesxlxaaprpnneedannv ddaaaa nbbcdlleh e aw brbathascy ckkwCaVew`wfaxyiatntiprpaedecnretreoruaen lnvysrbdtas’ h syae b h ibqrecyeplutehx lryde eapob- nrxlgfaatctirpivsciunea lkelailstn wCsipungy ayor eitfaphnsrealrsoog rreuw m sssshbi sg’ syottin o hhawiepnf eeawtixher ` l pwrp eUtoroBrerhalsgneeyanrr egrsvicii ;nieoa tseemr iUsineaninsaasavdl k hgs nseegJo a r difnmheomdrcws aoeo knutfycia wom mic tsrcrnhiJeh o aapblttsu nmacheeaa.csdt kberd eatEdio h np a exUcrctuilecoea toaintru s mm aictgiolrofohsoelnie yesnnsiewaave i vd anosetitJmredoa govdeeirc net nto ekosrcCffaitedl m eyo-ctymn.bh aappf aio Ccsnemsresthev autraydekaensi epa tgr’rsteeelrl o ade,utst saco thsftosoanl’aey lssionjnte unguosste;tts v idrf yteetuo caort cihss r tiet eoimhavonaene snnrd sa iefrf eeir teo;nfattnelydn; A NTDheR EinKTcOhoSen siVenAqcRuoNneAnsVetiAqaul ential outside Europe hold true in a ‘European space’. iiimsmlappnoodrr ttaaannndcc eew whwyaasa sfia toaselallwfwar lnwp aatdyoyhas slyii a rcsnmmty yd oam- afkrwniveeodeh r dyietmyeh eacaeifaimgt sreicisnorao e ngtntdhisthn eiintetr hhgtdBreyar on-ncIimftutu cihivlprtigseeeuaehhrrsnia a a ylllwe io essvrmaifaagie n drnniinaismdtef i Clee n tpyrdwcphsae reenuaari-nts sidb, adB 1 l lao8e rpsw7gienwet8ormiacd–seve1sh reep9 re tsr1ieewodhn5ann.eaafssimnCdl nolpsc t nlyaeaeew pyigdsn. raiah gtGpu hi; egtisonrid d’ne svlteao hetce wwrp iesnaeixirmtoirtsh etnieinindsnn g .d tlaeCistcre ieysrdia pootonur -rufmnets eoao’sknnti ntgh.eB eriatrislhy possesspioonssession widely held cultimurpaolr tsaingcneif iwerass aalnwda ysm mytohBrrseit.i shiEm pxeaargimoindi enindi nC tgyhp rauCns yarnpedr aculh saal’lsnen dgs etsw athatesu rsee cneamivse ed saahnned dm ownoitlihthiinc view that possession Varnava charts Cyprus’s progress from a perceived imperial asset to an `w`iinnicdcoeolnnys seehqqeuuldee nnctituailalt lpuw wtoprhiasrodelos ersenelssysgiesg ;isinshors ieenfiaioale` ds nrrg ose`rcn evursaeae lntatfv oudlserrr eaa mmblllu suayc sdctmtihh gadsn una.eiccfbcieEhcBeoio xsr ruiniattasositosb mi dhn roae sieiarnnm uaadaditptnsmireo ogerrnmii n saeto.l sCy ap fatsotyo heolpfims cnrns.y uti scswEas thtax’oasesaak fn,b mescsagtsoteiaenlandedtit utns pe ttsgror,a i muc laoCjacousrnt yisnlieyoptas iornnftytur ro seut ’xhsccr elteusimvsotieva nerdtlysui efsof e ni ratses;trn aattanelnygdi; c -military expendable backwater by explaining how the Union Jack came to fly over the ooff ppoolliiccyy aanndd ththe`o ecic nfu occlptnoouotnnrilnisatcgeily neq sgnuaigecnenindneic ftsiitei aheorle ssfp oicoamonsfs pdneiet msiprnsiepigaoreel cnnrgeT`cio phairevetle eiscovgro enoonmasafvbl nsienip mcarmlteanipoyu.ane Gc narohi cofa geaavlr rbe.cegohrGoainvutvam otelp vrrreaeneensraearttasnsn ro iccmndhne ,os.ecd u Gnoelntctfuoo sirsvsta tield oaartonnnea- ml,myncseiooasn knattnissndt grvd.uisoBuc artnlii tonoisanthrrative is a A N D R E K O S V A R N A V A aallwwaayyss mmaakkee ddeecicsIimisoipnoesnr istah litrshomru oginhu Cgeyhvp irdeuevsni,d1cee8-n7bc8ae–sg-1erbed9aa 1tsr 5beeoadfnisul lossr n weaiha ngiscgaho;p mdn iaeinnkc etgissh ;ifeoodr ne easxnc iiaessntrijieoon yngao bslfli tete aernreraeadt ufoorrfe ta ecoannde tmhices eanadr lsytudents of island and why after thirty-five years the British wanted it lowered. Cyprus’s wwrroonngg;;rreeaassoonns sf ofaoBrl wrrbi atabiydsash dd mp edecaeriksiecioo idsdni esoin cna isrCsei oya nporsrfet u etsohn fra tconeIhmudnag p nchecghr iheaaeladlivslnem idtng,oeagen nedjdcus eB sttrt-ohibitfie yashj su rteahesndtecd i emfrEyiuev raedotsdphiofef eaenanmrni nehd gins d;ttmoildyfrofye;e.ncrioseliniotthnlisyc ; avriee wo fttheant wrong;reasons for bad decisions are often changed to justify them differently; importance was always more imagined than real and was enmeshed within tthheerree iiss aa ggrreeaat ttr Bherreleiurtlceiusthcai snti amcanep c geteror ei ataalot d p mroaeldilitucm yca ti wtam naaciss e Dt bmartak oAisesne tddaalreed kkptmoe rsai iVtmll aoeraanntr a evimlaa y ltiiossoo tLn raere ckeete uvxrteecolrerl u sitnes r iM aevlioveotde;lneyrra enson eHdnt io stsi ottrr;ryea avatntee Fdrglsii nced- emrist i;lUitananivredyr sity,South A N D AR NE KDORSE VKAORSN AVVAAR N A V A widely held cultural signifiers and myths. Examining Cyprus’s status as an ccuullttuurraall ssiiggnnifiifeiersr scca uonaltndnus dripda eelp rrescaiergtcpinoetifinpoiestn.risso npasnla dyp plaa eygr rcaeeA apugtts rtiproeaanlaiarstt ppinlaa rydt e aci ngis riedoanet-c mipsaaiorktinn -ignm. Bdarekitciinsishgio.nB-rmitiaskhing.British V A N D R E K O S V A R N A V A Imperialism in Cyprus,1878–1915fills a gap in the existing literature on the early `inconsequential possession` reveals much about reasons of state,construction IBmrpiteisrhia plisemrio idn Ciny pCITmryhuppeser, ruc1iaso8 lmias7nmb8di –ni nc1a htC9iaoy1lpln5er nuofsgifl,e l1ass8r atc7h h8geiva– arp11Cel8o 9 7icvr8n1eee.r5 isitmvehfeaiagelderl:s cGe ahranex ,egdkics a Putpmrilie tnsioutngsn r B taollehilstl seieaitn nhgre taiaxhcletiy suBvstririiitesnies whg a oF n llatindgth ea attvr Nthaisitceuou sarieale’ .aIn lrlouasltnyrrar tteadht Leiovn edeo ani rsNl eywas,18 August A British period inB Crityisphr upse raiondd icnh Calylepnrugse sa ntdh ec hraellceenigveesd t haen dre mceoivneod liatnhdic m voienwol itthhiact view that of policy and the contingencies of imperial governance.Governments do not British imperial poglriecyat wbaosn ubsa swedh icphri mmaarkielys oforr e axnc leunsijvoeylayb olen rsetarda tfeogri ca-cmaidlietamriycs and students of R British imperial Bporiltiicshy iwmapse rbiaals peodl icpyr iwmaasr iblyasoedr perximcluarsiilvyeolyr oexnc lsutsrivaetelyg iocn- mstirliattaergyic-military considerations. Imperialism,and British and European history. always make decisions through evidence-based reasoning; decisions are often considerations. considerations. N BwtcImhurrelipottreuinesrrhgiaa; ilslpr i sesemaiarg si nogionirdfn eiC esaiy rntfps o rCrruae ynsblp,uda1rc d8upt a7sed n8reacc–ncee1id sp9 ittoc1oihon5 ansalf sldiael lmrpnse lgiaa teo y gs faa ta tpe hmn gienr i cse rtthaeahatcke neep geiavexlredeitdst t t iionaann lgojddu nle istmecte iifsorytiaono tto nuhrl-reiemtemhv aoei ckrnd is vnieftifghe e.ewirtB e;e rntiaathtrinlsayldhyt; ITgDIDATgmrmrhrhuerep ep seaAaAet e ttrccnrnr aobobiiddlaaiomroamrllieiensnsbkbmukmuoioinsn,ss a,s a waVt awnVitahnodiarhoidn cnriBn hITgDAcan1DAComBrv r ha8huriofomaeurrvt7p se v saiaiAf8matseeAai tt trrs. hcrriknra a cns aiaobi edirsLlhadhmalkiom sciraeliran eiae vLhncesafgdbkasteomukien ouil voc:n srEfdr,sGar t osaue aewa ul rVt rrrVEnnseirra oho eaedu eeiraikprenna crnrnsn Bn re PhoaeacoM ajrriv ovpenhaiinfmaeota yn re, sia dsacMahitcajirsshobeskhuin c s oB relyLl,hte aLtnlsdeaoehciun e vscbreruricfHdsasetoryaltil ulnteia.utn lrEsgr orud rt ua eeareotr rHnrrhnsefrrya ooeae iay.il lsiprena By ndt an rears oa cMintiajMtfcso rhionas aoFyyo,ha lrdldy ah cidn Fneabesuieadlsdmatrillrctes g tnenov u ai Fr ac iarrrdsHtlssHei n yaunNe ia.Ulaidsa dmsditncalnt eo oondvinifrvrscoari aiseysassylrr y ru’t .rsUasuaaIaaailtiltdtcnsul nty aseiFd,iFnvtadvlnrSlei naaeinetsnot drsrdemtidusr d seueotv aiirLhtdcariftsosyssei nu,I vSUdnaUaSeBonltnonN n sdi niiuvNs v a9eot seer7rhawtrfr8sussai-,itd0tt1yyei-,8v,7n SeA1Sto 9ousiu0gs uu-ot t7hashf9t03-0 VbyRiverDesign,Edinburgh VARAVA Australia n V cBorintsisidhe irmatpieornisa.l policy was based primarily or exclusively on strategic-military C1C18o8o77vv88ee..rr iimmaaggee::GGrereeke kP1C rP8ioer7vsi8eet.ssr tBisml eBasglseeins:gsG intrhegee tkBh rPeirt Biisehrsit tFsi lsaBhgle aFstls aiNngg iac toth seNia Bi’.crIoilltusissihatr’ a.FtIlelaldug sLatotr anNdteoicdno LNsioaen’w.dIslo,lun1s8 tNr Aaetuewgdsu ,Lso1tn98d Ao7nu 8Ngue0sw7ts,1198 A0ug7u9st030 burghARJacketdesig VAARNA www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk n V The combination of archival research,cultural analysis and visual narrative is a diN R E N gIDAC1m8roure7vp s8aeAte.trrnr aibidmlaioralaiengskemuo:sG,s arwVenaehdkri cn PBharrv ieimats itsaissh k B eLlaesens csfdtoin urgEr uetahrrne o iBpenrn eiMtajiosnohy dahFbeliasrlgten oa trrH eNyia.sidctoo sfroiayr’ . aIalltuc saFtrdlainetedmde Lircossn dUaonnn diNv eeswrtssu,itd1y8e, nAStousgu uotshtf 9ISB7N8IS 90B7N78-1 099-778w10-99w90IIS07wS-B-B.7797m7NN198a08 n90 90c93003h777-e-078087s-1t-1e900r9-09u-77n31i1v-009e09r0707s-i-t979y7p9090rJacketdesignbyRiverDesign,Edinburgh0e03s333s-.0-0c00o.ukesignbyRiverDesign,Edinburgh JacketdesignbyRiverDesign,EdinburghJacketdesignbyRiverDesign,AVA NAVAAVAA www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk d www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk et h k urg 9 780719 079030 Jac b n di www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk E n, g si e D r e v ISBN 978-0-7190-7903-0 Ri y b n g si e d et k c 9 780719 079030 a J www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk 9780719079030_1_pre.qxd 11/02/2009 01:50PM Page i general editor John M. MacKenzie When the ‘Studies in Imperialism’ series was founded by Professor John M. MacKenzie more than thirty years ago, emphasis was laid upon the conviction that ‘imperialism as a cultural phenomenon had as significant an effect on the dominant as on the subordinate societies’. With well over a hundred titles now published, this remains the prime concern of the series. Cross-disciplinary work has indeed appeared covering the full spectrum of cultural phenomena, as well as examining aspects of gender and sex, frontiers and law, science and the environment, language and literature, migration and patriotic societies, and much else. Moreover, the series has always wished to present comparative work on European and American imperialism, and particularly welcomes the submission of books in these areas. The fascination with imperialism, in all its aspects, shows no sign of abating, and this series will continue to lead the way in encouraging the widest possible range of studies in the field. Studies in Imperialism is fully organic in its development, always seeking to be at the cutting edge, responding to the latest interests of scholars and the needs of this ever-expanding area of scholarship. British Imperialism in Cyprus, 1878–1915 9780719079030_1_pre.qxd 11/02/2009 01:50PM Page ii AVAILABLE IN THE SERIES CULTURAL IDENTITIES AND THE AESTHETICS OF BRITISHNESS ed.Dana Arnold BRITAIN IN CHINA Community, culture and colonialism, 1900–1949 Robert Bickers RACE AND EMPIRE Eugenics in colonial Kenya Chloe Campbell FROM JACK TAR TO UNION JACK Representing naval manhood in the British Empire, 1870–1918 Mary A. Conley RETHINKING SETTLER COLONIALISM History and memory in Australia, Canada, Aotearoa New Zealand and South Africa ed. Annie E. Coombes IMPERIAL CITIES Landscape, display and identity eds Felix Driver and David Gilbert IMPERIAL CITIZENSHIP Empire and the question of belonging Daniel Gorman THE EMPIRE IN ONE CITY? Liverpool’s inconvenient imperial past eds Sheryllynne Haggerty, Anthony Webster and Nicholas J. White SCOTLAND, THE CARIBBEAN AND THE ATLANTIC WORLD, 1750–1820 Douglas J. Hamilton FLAGSHIPS OF IMPERIALISM The P&O company and the politics of empire from its origins to 1867 Freda Harcourt MISSIONARIES AND THEIR MEDICINES A Christian modernity for tribal India David Hardiman EMIGRANT HOMECOMINGS The return movement of emigrants, 1600–2000 Marjory Harper ENGENDERING WHITENESS White women and colonialism in Barbados and North Carolina, 1625–1865 Cecily Jones REPORTING THE RAJ The British press and India, c.1880–1922 Chandrika Kaul SILK AND EMPIRE Brenda M. King COLONIAL CONNECTIONS, 1815–45 Patronage, the information revolution and colonial government Zoë Laidlaw PROPAGANDA AND EMPIRE The manipulation of British public opinion, 1880–1960 John M. MacKenzie THE SCOTS IN SOUTH AFRICA Ethnicity, identity, gender and race, 1772–1914 John M. MacKenzie with Nigel R. Dalziel THE OTHER EMPIRE Metropolis, India and progress in the colonial imagination John Marriott IRELAND, INDIA AND EMPIRE Indo-Irish radical connections, 1916–64 Kate O’Malley SEX, POLITICS AND EMPIRE A postcolonial geography Richard Phillips IMPERIAL PERSUADERS Images of Africa and Asia in British advertising Anandi Ramamurthy GENDER, CRIME AND EMPIRE Kirsty Reid THE HAREM, SLAVERY AND BRITISH IMPERIAL CULTURE Anglo-Muslim relations, 1870–1900 Diane Robinson-Dunn WEST INDIAN INTELLECTUALS IN BRITAIN ed. Bill Schwarz MIGRANT RACES Empire, identity and K. S. Ranjitsinhji Satadru Sen AT THE END OF THE LINE Colonial policing and the imperial endgame 1945–80 Georgina Sinclair THE VICTORIAN SOLDIER IN AFRICA Edward M. Spiers MARTIAL RACES AND MASCULINITY IN THE BRITISH ARMY, 1857–1914 Heather Streets THE FRENCH EMPIRE BETWEEN THE WARS Imperialism, politics and society Martin Thomas ORDERING AFRICA eds Helen Tilley with Robert J. Gordon ‘THE BETTER CLASS’ OF INDIANS Social rank, imperial identity, and South Asians in Britain 1858–1914 A. Martin Wainwright BRITISH CULTURE AND THE END OF EMPIRE ed. Stuart Ward 9780719079030_1_pre.qxd 11/02/2009 01:50PM Page iii 9780719079030_1_pre.qxd 11/02/2009 01:50PM Page iii British ImpeBrriiatliisshm in CyIpmrpuesr, i1a8li7s8m– 1i9n15 The Inconsequential Possession THE INCONSEQUENTIAL POSSESSION Andrekos Varnava Lecturer in Modern History, Department of History, Andrekos Varnava Flinders University, LecturSero uinth M Aoudsetrrnal iHaistory, Department of History, Flinders University, South Australia MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PRESS Manchester and New York distributed iMn tAheN UCnitHedE SStaTtesE eRxclusively by UPANLGIVREARVES IMTAYC MPIRLLEASNS Manchester and New York distributed in the United States exclusively by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Copyright © Andrekos Varnava 2009 The right of Andrekos Varnava to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Published by Manchester University Press Altrincham Street, Manchester M1 7JA, UK www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data is available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available ISBN 978 0 7190 7903 0 hardback First published by Manchester University Press in hardback 2009 This edition first published 2015 The publisher has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for any external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. 9780719079030_1_pre.qxd 11/02/2009 01:50PM Page v CONTENTS Acknowledgements Page vi List of figures viii General editor’s introduction x Abbreviations xii Introduction 1 1 Historicising the British possession of Cyprus: the contexts 8 2 Cyprus from Richard Coeur de Lion to Disraeli: the imperial imagination 45 3 Justifying the occupation of Cyprus, 1876–78: ‘the key of Western Asia’ 65 4 The sublime illusions: 1878–80: the Mediterranean ‘Eldorado’ 93 5 Financial policy and the development of Cyprus, 1880–1912: the ‘mill-stone’ 127 6 From multiculturalism to multi-nationalism: the ‘European’ possession 152 7 Cyprus’ strategic place in the British imperial structure: the backwater 202 8 ‘Cyprus is of no use to anybody’: the pawn 246 Conclusion 272 Appendices 281 Select bibliography 301 Index 311 [ v ] 9780719079030_1_pre.qxd 11/02/2009 01:50PM Page vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS As with life, it is not possible to successfully complete a project of this magnitude without the lives of other people touching it. This book began as a PhD dissertation at the Department of History, University of Melbourne. I would like to thank my principal supervisor, Richard Pennell and my associate supervisor, Paul Nicholls for their persistence, advice and guidance; Patricia Grimshaw, at that time the Head of the Depart- ment, for supporting my application, as a 21-year-old, for an Australian post- graduate award; the two postgraduate officers, Kelly Angwin and Ron Baird; the two postgraduate coordinators, Professor Chips Sowerwine and David Goodman; and the Head of the Department, Charles Zika, for their great sup- port. I also wish to thank the other postgraduate students who went through the PhD adventure with me and were a constant source of support: Kwabena Adou-Boahen, Ian Coller, Roland Burke, Nell Musgrove, Jenny Spinks, Tim Goldsmith and Emily Turner-Graham. The staff members of the Baillieu and Education Resource Libraries at the University of Melbourne have been excellent, especially those from Inter-library Loan, who I bombarded with a record number of requests during my first two years; and Norm Turnross and Blanca Pizzani. I am very grateful to the A.G. Leventis Foundation for granting me $US3,500 and to the Arts Faculty at the University of Melbourne for the $AU3,000 grant for archival research in the UK in 2003. I am grateful for the services of vari- ous institutions and people, during my three months of research in London: Royal Holloway University of London, Egham Hill, Surrey; the National Archives, Kew; the British Library; St Anthony’s College, Oxford, and Debbie Usher, its archivist; Richard Schofield, my supervisor at King’s College; Robert Holland, Professor of Imperial and Commonwealth History, Institute of Commonwealth Studies, University of London; and Klearchos Kyriakides and Tim Reardon for their advice and hospitality. I have a number of people and institutions to thank for their assistance and advice while in Cyprus from October to December 2002, and since my move there in September 2006: the Cyprus American Archaeological Insti- tute; the Archbishop Makarios Library; the Cyprus Research Centre; the State Archives of Cyprus; Ruth Keshishian of Moufflon Bookshop; Thelma Michaelidies of MAM Bookshop; George Georghallides and his wife Joan; Maria Roussou and Antonis Hadjikyriacou, who are responsible for my application for the Leventis Foundation Scholarship; Rita Severis, who shared with me her incredible knowledge of Cyprus; and finally, but by no means least, to the historians of City Pride Pub, who I hope will form the future Cyprus Historical Association, Nicholas Coureas, Christopher Schabel, Hubert Faustmann, Colin Heywood, Simon Phillips and Ken Owen Smith. I would also like to thank a number of other people who have been very helpful: James [ vi ] 9780719079030_1_pre.qxd 11/02/2009 01:50PM Page vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Cameron, Christalla Yakinthou, Kynan Gentry, Yigal Sheffy, Jan Asmussen, Ersi Demetriadou, Eleni Apeyitou, Altay Nevzat and Nicholas Doumanis. I would also like to thank the two referees of my PhD and the three referees for Manchester University Press, especially Costas Constantinou, who provided me with invaluable comments that significantly improved the quality of this study. I also thank the team at Manchester University Press, especially Emma Brennan. My family has been a constant support. I thank my parents for their patience and the quiet environment. I thank my Auntie Katina and Uncle Andreas for taking me in while in Cyprus. I also thank my cousins Michalakis and Andreas for driving me to and from Nicosia to undertake archival research. I thank my uncle Kyriakos for leaving me his place in London while I was there. And finally to my beautiful wife Helen – thanks so much for your encour- agement, support and patience. Having acknowledged that all these people and institutions have touched this study in some way or another, it is only proper for me to recognise that any errors and shortcomings are entirely my own. [ vii ] 9780719079030_1_pre.qxd 11/02/2009 01:50PM Page viii LIST OF FIGURES 1 ‘Raising the British Flag in Nicosia, Cyprus’. Illustrated London News, 10 August 1878. 2 2 The Location of Cyprus. © Dr Andrekos Varnava, 2007. 10 3 Map of Cyprus. © Dr Andrekos Varnava, 2007. 11 4 The War Office Stamp on 23 October 1876 on map in Louis de Mas Latrie book. MFQ 1/724. 75 5 ‘Famagusta: The Ancient Venetian Port of Cyprus’. Illustrated London News, 20 July 1878. 94 6 ‘A Blaze of Triumph’. Punch, 27 July 1878. 95 7 Landing at Larnaca, 1878. Illustrated London News, 17 August 1878. 99 8 Cheflik Camp, Grave of Sergeant M’Gaw and other Sketches. Illustrated London News, 17 August 1878. 101 9 Monastery Camp, 1878. Illustrated London News, 17 August 1878. 102 10 Stanley and Smith leaving Nicosia, 1878. Illustrated London News, 30 November 1878. 105 11 ‘The Harbour of Famagusta, Cyprus’. Illustrated London News, 1878. 107 12 Famagusta Harbour, 1878. John Thomson, Through Cyprus with the Camera in the Autumn of 1878, London 1879. 108 13 Kyrenia Harbour in 1879. John Thomson, Through Cyprus with the Camera in the Autumn of 1878, London 1879. 136 14 Roads of Cyprus, 1890. C.V. Bellamy, The Main Roads of Cyprus, Nicosia, 1903. 140 15 Roads of Cyprus, 1904. C.V. Bellamy, The Main Roads of Cyprus, Nicosia, 1903. 140 16 An 1888 map of the Karpass Peninsula distinguishing the villages relative to the famine. C.5523. 141 17 Famagusta Harbour, 1906. George Hobbs, ‘Famagusta Harbour, Cyprus’, Minutes of the Proceedings of the Institute of Civil Engineers, CLXXVI, 3, 1908–09. 144 18 Portrait of the Ethno-Martyr, Archbishop Kyprianos. Postcard, Toufexis, Series 2, no. 81, 1906: Courtesy of the Laiki Group Cultural Centre Photographic Archive. 154 [ viii ] 9780719079030_1_pre.qxd 11/02/2009 01:50PM Page ix LIST OF FIGURES 19 Archbishop Sophronios III taken in 1878 by Max Ohnefalsch- Richter. Magda Ohnefalsch-Richter, Greek Customs and Traditions in Cyprus, 1913: Courtesy of the Laiki Group Cultural Centre Photographic Archive. 156 20 ‘Wolseley Courts Venus’. Punch, 3 August 1878. 160 21 ‘Native Group Nicosia’. John Thomson, Through Cyprus with the Camera in the Autumn of 1878, London 1879. 162 22 Map of Famagusta Harbour, Showing Defences, 1881. MPG1/867/4. 204 23 General Simpson Hackett presents Egyptian medals to 1/2 Battalion Berkshire Regiment, Troodos, 1887. J.P. Foscolo Collection: Courtesy of the Laiki Group Cultural Centre Photographic Archive. 209 24 Falkland Warren’s House overlooking Platres. J.P. Foscolo Collection: Courtesy of the Laiki Group Cultural Centre Photographic Archive. 210 25 Connaught Rangers playing polo on Cypriot mules, Photo c.1892. J.P. Foscolo Collection: Courtesy of the Laiki Group Cultural Centre Photographic Archive. 211 26 Government Cottage and Tennis Court, 1880. J.P. Foscolo Collection: Courtesy of the Laiki Group Cultural Centre Photographic Archive. 212 27 Mounted Zaptiehs of the Cyprus Local Military Police. J.P. Foscolo Collection: Courtesy of the Laiki Group Cultural Centre Photographic Archive. 225 [ ix ]