BRITANNICA 1975 BOOK OF THE YEAR ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, INC. Chicago,Toronto,London,Geneva,Sydney,Tokyo,Manila,Johannesburg,Seoul © 197S BY ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, INC. CopyrightUnderIntern^ AllRightsReservedUnderPanAmericc ByEncyclopcediatfrttannica,Inc. InLtierbnraatriyonoaflCoSntgarnedsasrdCaBtoalookgNCuamrbdeNru:mb0e-r8:523289--13200S8-28 .irnticoalf,tihnicsluwdoirnkgmphaoytobceopryienpgr,odruecceodrdoirng,utiolrizbeydainnyainnyfofromramtioonrsbtyoraangye wBitRhIouTtApeNrNmiIssCioAniBnOwrOitKingOfFromTtHheEpubYliEshAerR. {TrademParriknteRdegi.nUU..SS..AP.at.Off.) THEUNIVERSITYOFCHICAGO ; ManagingEditor LawrenceK.Lustig Editors DaphneDaume,Chicago J.E.Davis,London Editorial Staff DavidCalhoun,VanessaClarke, JudyFagelston,R.M.Goodwin, DavidHately,BarbaraVVescottHurd, ArthurLatham A.G.Armstrong,RichardH.Kessler,M.D., MiroslavKriz,MartinE.Marty, HarveySherman Correspondents JoanHarris,Toronto H.W.DeWeese,Sydney ShigckiHijino,Tokyo CesarA.Ramos,MexicoCity PauloDallfollo,RiodeJaneiro ArtDirector CynthiaPeterson PictureEditors JeannineDcubel; Barbara Hilborne,London AssistantEditor JulieA.Kunkler LayoutArtist RichardBatchelor Cartographer ChrisLeszczynski ArtStaff JohnL.Draves, MiguelRodriguez GeographyEditor WilliamA.Cleveland GeographyResearch AnneBuczkowski EditorialProductionManager J.ThomasBeatty ProductionCoordinator RuthPassin ProductionStaff Sujata Bancrjec,CharlesCegielski, Elizabeth Chastain, BarbaraW. Cleary, JeanneDcitei,EmilieFall, SusanGoodfellow,MarilynKlein, LawrenceKowalski.ThomasRadko, SusanRecknagel.JulianRonning, Mark Schoene, Harry Sharp, DcniseTinberg,ChervlM.Trobiani, ColcenWithgott,AnitaK.Wolff, MelindaAnnWright CopyControlSupervisor Mary C.Srodon CopyControlStaff MaryK.Finley BarbaraBritt, London IndexSupervisor FrancesE.Latham Assistant Supervisor RosaE.Casas IndexStaff MaryNeumann,MaryReynolds Librarian TerryMiller LibraryAide NaomiGralnek SecretarialStaff FleurvNoltaBallantyne, EuniceL.Mitchell ManagingEditor,EncyclopaediaBritannica,Inc. MargaretSutton ENCYCLOPEDIABRIT.ANNICA,INC. ChairmanoftheBoard RobertP.Gwinn President CharlesE.Swanson VicePresident,Editorial CharlesVanDoren : Contents FeatureArticles 6 AWorldWithoutWant Theproblemofhungerandfoodsuppliesinthelessdevelopednations oftheworldisexaminedbyIndiraGandhi. 18 InformationIndustriesintheUnitedStates Aninformationexplosionandtheconcomitantgrowthofcommunica- tionssystemshave led to the formationofnew kinds of industries, describedbyAnthonyOettingerandPeterShapiro. ChronologyofEvents Amonth-by-monthsummaryaccountof significanthappenings that haveoccurredin1974. BookoftheYear 42-735 An alphabetically organized treatment of the people, places, and developments of significance during 1974, including the following generalareas BiographiesandObituaries EconomicDevelopments EnvironmentandNaturalResources FoodandAgriculture HealthandDisease HumanAffairs IndustrialProduction LiteratureandtheArts NationalandInternational Affairs ScienceandTechnology SocialSciences SportsandGames 737 Contributors 745 Index Special Reports 66 Agriculture:TheSahelDrought Aclimaticcatastrophehasledtowidespreaddevastationandfamine alongthesouthernmarginoftheSahara,byMartinWdker. 95 Australia:StrikesinanAffluentSociety Improvementofwagesandlivingstandardsinindustrializednations hasnotproducedtheexpectedresults,byPhilipBentley. 154 Canada:Canada'sNativeIndianPeoples The original Canadian inhabitants are afflicted withsomeproblems thatareunique,butmanythatarecommontominoritygroupsgen- erally,byVernaJ.Kirkness. 180 CommodityTrade:AreCartelsInevitable? Successfuluseofthe"oilweapon"byproducingstateshasraisedfear ofcartelformationamongcountriesthatexportotheressentialcom- modities,byAndrewW.Staines. 216 Defense:CyprusandtheGreatPowerBalance TheTurkishinvasionofCyprusinJulyhaddireconsequencesforthe island's inhabitants, but it also raised wider issues of great-power strategyintheeasternMediterranean,byRobert1.Ranger. 319 GamesandToys:CraftsmenWithoutNumber The satisfaction derived from the creative use of one's hands and simplematerialsisubiquitous,bySusanNelson. 341 HealthandDisease:DefinitionsofIIIHealth Thequestionofwhatconstitutessickness,incontrasttowellbeing, ismorecomplexthanmightbesupposed,byBarbaraStarfield. 349 HealthandDisease:InstitutionalCareandMentalIllness Thecommunityhealthcareconceptisvalid,butlimitstoitseffective- nessdoexist,by William G.Smith. 402 IndustrialRelations:TheQualityofWorkingLife Experimental innovations in assembly line procedures have led to increasedworkersatisfaction,byRichardE.Walton. 432 Law:TheLawoftheSea TheUnitedNationsconferenceinCaracasproducedspiriteddiscus- sion of ocean resources and relevant international issues, but little agreementemerged,by TonyLojtas. 556 PopulationsandAreas:WorldPopulation'Year The first World Population Conference produced confrontation be- tween those advocating population control and those holding that economic underdevelopmentposedastillgreaterproblem for many nations,byJon Tinker. 567 PrisonsandPenology:TheProblemofPrisons:Reform orAbolition? Anexaminationofincarcerationasadeterrenttocriminalsfroman abolitionist'sviewpoint,byJessicaMitjord. 592 Religion:TheGeographyofReligioninAmerica Newdatahaverevealedmorepreciselythanbeforethe distribution ofbelieversintheUnitedStates,byMartinE.Marty. 623 SouthAfrica:AWindofChange? EventsinPortugal'sAfrican territoriesheraldapossiblereexamina- tionofSouthAfrica'spolicies,byHelenSuzman. 717 UnitedStates:ImpeachmentofaPresident The political conditions surrounding Richard M. Nixon's near im- peachment arecomparedand contrastedwith those that confronted AndrewJohnson,byBruceL.Felknor. A World Without Want by Indira Gandhi IndiraGandhihasbeenprimeministerofIndiasince1966. Untiltwohundredyearsago,Indiawasregardedasthe A student of Visva-Bharali University, Bengal, and of world's most prosperous country, a magnet for traders, OxfordUniversity,Mrs.Gandhihasdevotedmuchofher seafarers,andmilitaryadventurers.ThewealthofAkbar careertoeconomicplanningandsocialreform.Hercon- theMughaliscomputedatseveralscorelimesthatofthe acenrdnifsorrevtehaeleudndaegrapirniviinletgheedfooflltohweinwgoralrtdicilse,wewlhlickhnosewtns YHeotlyinRohimsarneiegmn—pe-rasorinChtahrolseesoVf othreLootuhiesrsX—IVtheofcFormanmcoen. forthherviewsontheproblemofhunger.Overpopulation, peoplelivedinpoverty.Themultitudestarved,whileno- whichisconsideredbymanyobserversto beadominant bles lived in splendour. Even in those times there were factorintheworldhungerproblem,istreatedprincipally large irrigation works in countries like China and India, intheSpecialReportentitledWorldPopulation Year. but famineswerenotunusual.Amongcountriesaswithin countries,therehavealwaysbeenrichandpoor. Military powerandlootingled totheimpoverishmentof thevan- Two-thirdsof the world's peoples are underprivileged, quishedand theenrichmentof thevictor. and this despite such breathtaking achievements of Until the modern idea arose of social engineering for science as space travel, instant communication, and the equality, only small and compact societies could avoid unravelingoftheverybuildingblocksoflife.Technology unseemlydisparities.Inearliertimes,thelargertheextent hasgivenustheknowledgetosupplementortosubstitute andefficiencyofgovernment, thewider thegapbetween whathasbeenprovidedinnature.Vetmanyhundredsof asmallnumberofrichand themassesof thepoor. The millions remainundernourishedandaredenied the mini- IndustrialRevolutionandtheriseofcolonialismsharpened mumclothing,shelter,medicalcare,andeducation. internationaldisparities.Eventhedifferenceinthelifespan Whydoesthisparadoxexist?Naturalresourcesareun- ofpeopleinWesternEuropeandSouthAsiaisthesequel evenlydistributed,andsomecountrieshaveacquiredtre- ofEuropelsearlierleadinscience,foruntilthebeginning mendouseconomicpowerbecauseoftheiradvancedtech- ofthe19thcentury,mortalityrateswereroughlythesame nology. Individualandnational self-centrednessis to the inallcountries.Butthepresentaffluenceoftheadvanced fore, and there is no feeling of collective responsibility. countriesisdueasmuchtocolonialexploitationastotheir Theworldisstillatthestageofeconomicnationalism. masteryoverscienceandmoderntechnology. I belong to a generation that spent its childhood and Thepaceofacountry'stechnologicaladvancedepends youth (the so-called years of careless rapture!) fighting uponthestockoftechnologyithasalreadyaccumulated. everyinchofthewayforourbasichumanrightsascitizens Anysurveyofelementaryhumanneedsandthemeansto ofanancientandhonourableland. Itwasahard life,of fulfillthembringsouttheincongruouscoexistenceofover- sacrificeandinsecurity,ofangerandimpatience.Yetthe abundanceanddeprivation.InWesternEuropeandNorth hope in our eyes and our hearts never dimmed, for we America,people'schiefworryistorestricttheirintakeof werebeckonedbythestaroffreedom,bythebrightprom- calories,fortheiraverageconsumptionis22%higherthan iseofaworldwithoutwantandexploitation.Canitbeonly the energy requirements of the body. Elsewhere, entire 27yearsago?Science,thekeytothenewworldforwhich nationssufferfrommalnutrition.ForusinIndia,scarcity welonged,hasnotbeenallowedtoservethosewhoseneed isonlyamissedmonsoonaway. isgreatestbuthasbeenmadetopandertothedesire for The MeaningofWant. The definition ofwant isnot profitsandtonarrownationalobjectives.Farfromhaving constant.Increasingincomesinatimeoftransition from providedmore,todaywefaceaworldbesetbydirefore- onestageoftechnologytoanotherbringmanychangesin castsofglobal food inadequacies,whereeven the richest theirtrain-—inhabitsaswellasintheveryconceptofwhat countriesareexperiencingshortagesofonearticleorother. isdesirable. Additionalearningsareonlypartlyspenton Manycountries thatare labeled as developingare the morefoodandothernecessities,whiletherestgointodis- very lands where civilization began. Poor today, though playingthesignsofnewstatus.Togiveonlyoneexample, richintheircontributiontothestoryofman,Iraq.Egj'pt, inIndiatheriseintheincomescalehasmeantgivingup India, Iran, and China were among the early cradles of millets for rice and wheat, discarding regional costumes intellect and endeavour. Here man first became farmer, in favourofmodern citywear.Needhasapsychological plant breeder, and metallurgist. Here he fathomed the nolessthananeconomicconnotation. mysteriesofmathematicsandmedicine,themovementof Thereareatleastthreekindsofwant:first,ashortageof starsintheskyandofthoughtsinhisownmind.Thefirst the essentials of existence, such as minimum nutrition, seers in India arose from among farmers, singing praise clothing, and housing; second, the absence of elements, oftheearth,water,andthesunandcelebratingtheenergy such as educationand recreation, that give meaningand of growing things. From the sun comes rain, they said, purposetolife; andthird,theabsenceoftheextras that andfromrainfood,andfromfoodalllivingbeings. advertisingproclaimsasnecessarytogoodliving. havegrownevenfaster,duetoincreasesinpopulationand percapitaincomeandchangedeatinghabits.Toagreatex- tent,thisgaphashadtobefilledbythetransferoffood surpluses,mostlyoftherichcountriesofNorthAmerica. TheU.S.andCanadahavecontrolledalargershareofthe world's exportable grain supplies than the Middle East doesoftheworld'soil. Themechanismoffoodaidsavedfarmersinrichcoun- tries fromthedisastrousdeclineinincomes thatsurplus productionwouldhavecaused.Fordecadesthesecountries restrictedacreage andactuallypaid their farmersnot to growcrops! NowtheUnitedStateshasendedrestrictions onacreage,butincreasesindomestic consumption there, andchangesintradepatternsandinattitudestowardaid, rule out long-term dependence on North American sur- pluses.Itisurgentthatdevelopingcountriesimprovetheir domesticproduction.Thatistheonlysurebasis forsus- tainedgrowthinothersectors. In1970technologicalandotherexpertshadprophesied widespread faminein India, but forus it was a year of plenty, when our new agricultural policy bore abundant fruitandwecouldaccumulateabufferstockofninemil- lionmetrictonsof—grain.Buttheyearfollowingbrought unforeseen events ten million refugees, a war followed by acute drought. Aid was stalled. Our surplus was de- pleted,thoughwemanagedtogetbywithmarginalimports. Thenwewerehitbytheworldfinancialcrisisandthesky- Thefirstkindofwantintheworld:"ashortageoftheessentials rocketingprice ofoil. In addition,drought haspersisted ofexistence,suchasminimumnutrition,clothing,andhousing." insuccessiveseasons. ThePresentFoodCrisis.Thecurrentworidwidecon- MahatmaGandhioncesaidthatthehungryseeGodin cernoverfoodisapoignantconsequenceofeventssince theformofbread.Manymillionsarenotyetvouchsafed 1972. Drought made itself felt across whole continents, thisgrace.Thepercapitaavailabilityofgrainintheless causing production to fall simultaneously in the Soviet developedcountriesishardly 200kg.ayear,whereas in Union,China,India,partsofAfrica,andSoutheastAsia. developed countries it is close to 1,000kg. It should be Total worldproductionofcereals went downby4%, or notedthatnearly90%oftheconsumptionofgraininde- more than 30million metric tons. In such a situationit velopedcountriesisindirect, throughits conversion into wasnatural forfood-surpluscountries tomake themost meatandpoultry. In 1970 the rich countries used some oftheiradvantage.Grainpricesrosetodizzyheights,add- 375millionmetrictonsofcerealstofeedanimals,aquan- ingtothealreadyescalatingforcesofworldwideinflation titygreaterthan the total cerealconsumption byhuman and compounding the problems of developing countries beingsanddomesticatedanimalsin Chinaand Indiaput already staggered by steep increases in theprice of oil. together. The noted economist Barbara Ward has com- Intheabsenceofaninternationalsystemgoverningtrade putedthat,since 1967,theUnitedStateshasaddedtoits ingrain,thelimitedstocksthatwereavailablein"surplus" grain-beefconversionratealmosttheentireequivalentof countriesweredistributed,throughbilateraltrade,tothose India'slevel of consumption. Meanwhile, according to a whocouldafford topay. UNestimate,thedemandforfoodbetween1970and1985 India'scurrentbalanceofpaymentsproblem isalmost willgrowby27% indevelopedcountriesandby 72% in entirelyduetothehighpricesoffood,fertilizers,andoil. developingcountries. We are exploring every possibility of substituting other ABasicInequality.Theworldfoodproblemhighlights fuelstomeettheenergyneedsofoureconomy,butwhat thecontradictionsinherentin themassiveandco—ntinuing can take theplaceof foodand fertilizer? Fertilizerisin injustice in the control of the world's resources which, shortsupplyallovertheworldbecauseofhighoilprices we havelatelybegun to realize,are notunlimited. Land and because the demand in developed countries has in- isunevenlydistributed.Onapercapitabasis,theUnited creasedtremendously.IhavereadthattheUnitedStates StatesandtheSovietUnionhavecloseto0.9ha.ofarable usesthreemillionmetrictonsoffertilizerjusttokeepits land.Canadahas2ha.andAust—raliamorethan3ha.The lawnsgreen.Thisismorethantheentiresupplyavailable distributionofothe—rresources inparticular, technology toIndiatogrowfoodin1971. andmaterialinputs hasalsobeenunequal. Africaillustratestheseverityofthepresentfoodcrisis Isitnotremarkablethat,inspiteofthesedisadvantages, alongwith the untappedpotential for higher production. developingcountriesasagroupwereabletoachieve,over In the Sahelianzone of Africa, drought conditions have thelast decade,agrowthrate in agricultural production persisted foranumberofyears. On the same continent, closetothatoftheindustrialcountries?Buttheirdemands theland-manratioinseveralcountriesisfavourable,and . ; thereisampleopportunitytodevelopthelandifthetsetse Threedistinctneedsmustbemet: flyandotherdiseasecarrierscanbecontrolled.Ithasbeen 1 Greaterproductionindevelopingcountries estimatedthatwhenthisisaccomp—lishedanareaofnearly 2. Assuranceofsomeinternationallycontrolledsupplies seven million square kilometres larger than the entire tomeetabnormalshortagesthatmightoccurinabad agriculturalareaoftheUnitedStates—canbebroughtun- year;and dercultivation. i. Generationofadequatepurchasingpowerfordevelop- Worldgrainstockshaveslumpedtoaprecariouslylow ingcountriestofinanceneededimports. level.In1961 theytotaled154millionmetrictonsand,in IncreasingFoodSupplies.Thefirststepisclearlythe addition,landdeliberatelywithheld fromproduction rep- responsibilityofthedevelopingcountriesthemselves.They resentedapotentialoutputofsome70millionmetrictons. mustsettheirprioritiesrightandprovide forinvestment In 1974grainstockswereestimatedat 89millionmetric in land improvement, use of water, production of ferti- tons, the equivalent of barely four weeks' consumption, lizer,and thedevelopment of technologies needed to in- andthereislittleidlelandleftin"surplus"countries.The creasefoodproduction.Inaffluentnations,bothagriculture capacityof the world to meet a sudden adverse turn in andindustryusemass-productiontechniques. Agriculture theweatheristhusgreatlyreduced. itselfhasbecomeanindustr>'in which fewerpeople cul- Thedemandforfoodmayexceeditspotentialsupplyfor tivate ever increasing areas with the help of machines. manyyears to come. According to estimates of the UN Withsuchcapital-intensivetechnology,percapitaproduc- FoodandAgricultureOrganization the world production tivityishighandsoareindividualincomes. In India,on ofcereals,currentlyabout 1.200,000,000metrictons,will theotherhand,wefaceasituationwheremoreandmore havetoincreaseonanaverageby 25millionmetric tons people will have to cultivate progressively smaller areas eachyeartomeettherisingdemand.By 1985 developing ofland. Unemplo>Tnent figuresin India appearmost de- countriesmightfaceatotalannualgapofnearly85 mil- pressingwhen employment is calculated in terms of per lionmetric tonsof foodgrains. Noris thisdismalprog- capitaproductivity.Thisisthebasisofourpoverty.Our nosisofagapingchasmbetweenwhatislikelytobeavail- mosturgenttask,therefore,istoaugmentperhectarepro- able and what is needed confined to less developed ductivity throughthescientific useofourbiological and countries.JamesJ.\eedham.chairmanoftheNewYork physicalassets. StockExchange,hassaidthatintheperiod 1974-85capi- Thisgoal canbeachievedonlythroughwidespread in- talwill fallapproximately$650billionshortofU.S.eco- volvementoftheruralcommunityinscientificmethodsof nomicrequirements. farminginwhicheveryindividualcanparticipate.Unfor- DroughtinIndia.Intheearly1970stherainsbypassedpartsofwesternIndiaandthesewomenmustdigforwaier Inadried-upriverbed.Thebridgesuggestsform"r-i'v-f.ih'irrtjntw.itci-^thisarea.