BRITAIN AND THE ARCTIC Duncan Depledge Britain and the Arctic “The global gaze is hardening on the Arctic. Climate change is transforming the region, sovereignty issues and resource development are provoking geopolitical debate on its future, and indigenous peoples are asserting their rights and demand- ing greater involvement in decisions that affect their lives and lands. Meanwhile, a number of non-Arctic states are shaping their own approaches to the high lati- tudes. Depledge traces Britain’s efforts to establish its own role in the Arctic; his- tory, science, trade, conservation and national security are entangled with narratives about claims for a powerful presence in northern affairs. Erudite, incisive and original, this book is a vital contribution to scholarship on the contemporary Arctic and to our understanding of how the region is being redefined and contested by an array of interests.” —Mark Nuttall, Professor and Henry Marshall Tory Chair, University of Alberta “This thought-provoking book considers the power-geometries of the Arctic Council and the exclusionary politics through which Arctic states attempt to deprive non-Arctic states of a say in regional affairs. Britain is the illustrative case, but the analysis is universally valid and applicable to other states as well. This makes the book a most important contribution also in the looming debate on how to improve on the legitimacy of Arctic decision-making in the future. For scholars and policy makers—Arctic and non-Arctic—this book is a MUST read.” —Willy Østreng, President of the Norwegian Scientific Academy for Polar Research, 2012–2017 “The idea that Britain is a ‘forgotten’ Arctic state surprises at first, but Depledge’s explanation—close connections between the English and the Norsemen in the Viking Age, English fleets searching for northern sea routes to Asia, mass-scale whaling off Svalbard, Canadian Arctic territories under British rule, radioactive waste from Sellafield in the Barents Sea, the presence of British submarines in the Arctic Ocean, British funding of Arctic research—makes clear Britain’s past and present proximity to the region.” —Lassi Heininen, Professor and Leader of the Thematic Network on Geopolitics and Security and Co-founder of the GlobalArctic Project, University of Lapland Duncan Depledge Britain and the Arctic Duncan Depledge Fleet, UK ISBN 978-3-319-69292-0 ISBN 978-3-319-69293-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69293-7 Library of Congress Control Number: 2017959056 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the pub- lisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institu- tional affiliations. Cover illustration: © Melisa Hasan Printed on acid-free paper This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland For my family P reface This book grew out of the doctoral project—funded by the Royal United Services Institute and the Economic and Social Research Council—that I completed at Royal Holloway, University of London, between 2010 and 2014, entitled Being Near-Arctic: A Critical Geopolitics of Contemporary British Policy Towards the Far North. After successfully passing my viva, my two examiners encouraged me to turn my study into a book, not least because it would be the first substantial title to address Britain’s geopoliti- cal interests in the Arctic since the end of the Cold War. It would also be timely as British interest in the evolving geopolitics of the Arctic has undoubtedly grown over the past decade. In the three years that passed since I submitted my dissertation, writing this book further provided me with an opportunity to reflect on, rethink, and update my original study. When I sat down for my viva in 2014, the House of Lords Select Committee was only a few months into its wide- ranging inquiry into the opportunities and risks arising in the Arctic, and their implications for Britain. Since then we have seen a new crisis in West– Russia relations, a dramatic fall in oil prices, and record high temperatures in the Arctic, all of which have had a bearing on how we should think about British interests in the region. I have also been fortunate enough to become more deeply acquainted with Britain’s various Arctic stakeholders in Government, Parliament, the military, the private sector, academia, and civil society, both in my capacity as Director of the All-Party Parliamentary Group for Polar Regions Secretariat (since 2015), and while serving as special adviser to the House of Commons Defence Committee during the recent sub-Committee vii viii PREFACE inquiry into Defence in the Arctic (since 2017). These acquaintances have without doubt helped me to reflect more deeply on how British interests in the Arctic have evolved. The research methods and the theoretical underpinnings of this book are the same as those described in my dissertation, which is openly acces- sible from Royal Holloway. Over the past seven years I have regularly found myself in close proximity to those actually making and shaping British policy towards the Arctic, for instance, as a participant in the 2010 Canada–UK Colloquium, which focussed that year on the Arctic, as an observer of British military forces during Exercise COLD RESPONSE in 2012, as a participant in the Ministry of Defence’s study group on the Polar Regions in 2013, as a member of the British delegation to the Arctic Circle Assembly in Reykjavik in 2014, as a participant in the Wilton Park Conference on the future of the Arctic in 2016, as well as through my work with the All-Party Parliamentary Group for Polar Regions, and the House of Commons Defence Committee. Much of my approach was opportunistic, snatching where I could glimpses of British Arctic policy debates at meetings, workshops, and conferences, and supplementing those with more than 50 interviews with Parliamentarians, current and former civil servants and Government scientists, representatives of civil society and the private sector, journalists, and other academics. I have not been able to reveal everything I heard and saw, but I believe that was a price worth paying for the insights that I accumulated. Lastly, the project is unapologetically policy-focused and Whitehall- centric. There are still questions to be asked about how the wider public thinks about the Arctic today, in contrast to our Victorian predecessors who continue to receive substantially more attention, but that could not be included within the scope of either my doctoral project or this book. There are also outstanding questions about the extent to which Britain’s interests in the Arctic diverge depending on where you are in the country. For instance, the Scottish Government has complained that its particular interests in the Arctic continue to be ignored, while other parts of Britain, including cities such as Hull, might also feel that they have a distinct stake in Arctic affairs. Far from offering the final word, I hope this book will mark the beginning of a more diverse debate about what the Arctic means to Britain, and how Britain should engage with the Arctic in all its diver- sity, in the twenty-first century. a cknowledgements This book probably would not have happened if not for the encourage- ment I received from my doctoral examiners Professor Clive Archer and Dr Richard Powell. I was particularly saddened to learn of Professor Archer’s passing in 2016, before I could bring this book to fruition. I am indebted to those people who have taken the time to talk to me about the Arctic over the past seven years, allowing me to benefit from all their accumulated knowledge and experience, although none bear respon- sibility for my subsequent analysis of what I learned. There are simply too many to list them all by name. I am immensely grateful to a host of other individuals (including my entire family) who have at some stage or other supported me with the writing of this book, whether by offering their precious time to respond to my persistent questioning and offer comments on specific chapters or sec- tions of the book, or simply through their gentle support and encourage- ment. Special mention must go to Dr Andrew Foxall, Dr Dougal Goodman, Michael Kingston, Professor Tim Benton, Professor Michel Kaiser, Professor Peter Wadhams, Professor Ray Leakey, Professor Terry Callaghan, Dr Kathrin Keil, Henry Burgess, Nick Cox, James Rogers, Matt Skuse, and James Gray, MP. I also thank Joanna O’Neill and the team at Palgrave for their patience and assistance, Jenny Kynaston in the Department of Geography at Royal Holloway for helping me to secure the map that is included in this book, and Matthew Gale for putting together the index. Finally, I cannot thank Professor Klaus Dodds enough for both his guidance and his friendship since our chance meeting in 2009. He has ix x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS gone above and beyond his responsibilities as my doctoral supervisor— which ended three years ago—with the support he has given me through- out this project. The map of the Arctic included in this book was modified from MountainHighMapsPlus® Copyright ©2013 Digital Wisdom Publishing Ltd. c ontents 1 I ntroduction: Britain and the Arctic 1 2 Britain: The Forgotten Arctic State? 13 3 The Circumpolar Arctic 35 4 Britain in the Arctic Today 63 5 To Strategise in the Arctic, or Not? 101 6 Conclusions 123 Index 135 xi