Bouhedjila, Ali (1996) The concept and regime of the exclusive economic zone under the law of the sea convention and in State practice. http://theses.gla.ac.uk/7011/ Copyright and moral rights for this thesis are retained by the author A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Glasgow Theses Service http://theses.gla.ac.uk/ [email protected] THE CONCEPT AND REGIME OF THE EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE UNDER THE LAW OF THE SEA CONVENTION AND IN STATE PRACTICE . ALI BOUHEDJILA LL.M. (University of Southa~pton) Thesis submitted to the University of Glasgow for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy . Faculty of Law and Financial Studies University of Glasgow © Ali Boubedjila, 1996 fiK!- [ s Iiou{d first to e~ress my sincere and profound tlian/(§ to my supervisor Professor J. P. grant for liaving read and commented upon tlie various parts of tliis tliesis, and for liis aavice and constant encouragement witliout wliiclitliis tliesis wou{d never liave come about. I wou{cf aLso fiR.f- to tlian/t my fami{y, especia{(y my wife for lier understanaing of my repreated absences from Iiorrie during tlie preparation of tliis tliesis. Last, but not {east, mytlian/(§ go to Cliiliab 2000's typing team for· its cooperation in typing tliis thesis. Wlii{e I'm inaebtea to my supervisor and many otlier teacliers, tlie responsibifity for any errors or omissions in tliis thesis remains, of course, entire{y my own. .91.. tJ30U2lT/DJI.LJ1L ~e6ruary 1996 T ABLE OF CONTENTS Ackowledgments ................................................................................... 2 Table of Contents.. ....... .................. ...................... ........ .... ........ ......... ..... 3 Summary ............................................................................................ 7 Abbreviations ..................................................................................... 10 Table of Cases .................................................................................... 14 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................... 15 CHAPTER ONE : ACCESS TO LIVING RESOURCES OF THE SEA'S WATER COLUMN PRIOR TO THE FIRST SUBSTANTIVE SESSION OF UNCLOS III, JUNE 20, 1974 ................................................................................... 26 Introduction Section I : Freedom of Access to Living Resources of the Sea's Water Column under the General Concept of Freedom of the Seas ....................... 26 Section II : The Coastal State's Exclusive Fishing Rights ............................ 30 A. The Territorial Sea .. ..... ...... ... ..... ... ............ ..... ...... ........ ........... 30 B. The Post - 1930 Period Claims to the ReSources of the High Seas .. .... .... 32 C. The Question of Exclusive Fishing Rights at UNCLOS I (1958) and _UNCLOS II (1960) ................................................................ 38 , D. The Geographical Scope of the Coastal State's Exclusive Fishing Rights in the Post-Geneva Conferences Period ......................................... 42 CHAPTER TWO : EEZ-COASTA L STATES .... .................. ..... .......... ...... ..... 72 Introduction Section I : The Coastal State's Economic Rights in the EEZ ......................... 72 A. The Scope of the Coastal State's General Rights over the EEZ's Economic Activities ............................................................................ 73 B. The Content of the Coastal State's Jurisdiction over the Living Resources of the EEZ Water Column ......................................................... 76 1. The Coastal State's Powers with Regard to Allocation of the EEZ Fisheries ......................................................................... 76 1.1. The Power to Determine the Allowable Catch ......................... 77 1. 2. The Power to Determine its Harvesting Capacity............. ....... 79 1. 3. The Power to Determine the Surplus Catch and to Allow Access to Third States ............................................................ 80 2. The Coastal State's Power with Regard to Prescription of Laws and Regulations for Fishing in its EEZ ............................................ 83 3. The Coastal State's Powers with Regard to Enforcement of Conservation and Management Measures ...................... '" .......... 84 4. Special Provisions for Specific Species .............................. ,. ...... 87 4. 1. The Regime for Resources Located in More than One Zone ........ 87 4. 2. Resources Straddling the High Seas and the EEZ .................... 88 4. 3. Regulation of Highly Migratory Species ............................... 93 3 4. 4. Conservation and Protection of Marine Mammals .................... 96 4. 5. Conservation of Anadromous Species ................................. 97 4. 6. Management of Catadromous Species ... ..... ........ ... ..... ... ...... 98 C. The Nature of the Coastal State's Rights over Sedentary Species and the Non-Living Resources of the Seabed and Subsoil of the EEZ .............. 100 1. Sedentary Species ............................... '" ..... ... ... ...... ... ... .... 100 2. The Non-Living Resources of the EEZ ...................................... 102 D. The Coastal State's Rights over Other Economic Resources of the EEZ. ... 107 Section IT : The Coastal State's Non-Economic Rights in the EEZ ................. 108 A. The Competence of the Coastal State with Regard to Artificial Islands, Installations, and Structures ..................................................... 109 B. The Competence of the Coastal State with Regard to Marine Research in the EEZ .......................................................................... 111 C. The Competence of the Coastal State with Regard to the Protection and Preservation of the EEZ Marine Environment ................................. 116 1. Dumping in the EEZ ............ :.............................................. 117 2. Pollution from Seabed Activities ............................................. 118 3. Pollution from Vessels: .............................. , ........................... 119 CHAPTER THREE: EEZ-THIRD STATES ...................................•.........•.. 143 Introduction Section.!: The Rights of Third States Related to Non-Economic Uses of the EEZ .........................................' . .................... 144 A. Freedoms of Navigation, Overflight and of Laying Submarine Cables and Pipelines ............................................................................ 145 1 - Freedom of Navigation,·.,·.""""~'"''''''''·.'''''w.,. ..., w.'''w ..~ ~'''''''·.w~,·.~,·.·.·.·.·.wow.·.·.·.,·.·."w."'·.,·.~'''w, 146 2 - Freedom of Overflight·········· .. ······ .. ····························................................................................................... 152 3 - Freedom of Laying Submarine Cables and Pipelines .,"""''''', ......... "'', ...., ." .., ,'''',,. .... 154 B. Other International Uses of the Sea Related to Navigation, Overflight, and the Laying of Cables and Pipelines ........................................ 155 C. Non Attributed (Residual) Rights ............................................... 159 Section IT : The Rights of Third States Related to Access to the EEZ Living Resources ................................................................... 161 A. Access of Third States to the Surplus Resources of the EEZ in General .... 162 B. LL and GDSs Access to the Living Resources of Other States EEZs ....... 164 1. The Origin and Meaning of the Terms 'Land-locked' and 'Geographically Disadvantaged States' ..................................... 164 1. 1. The Term 'Land-locked' State·····,···············,·,····,··ow. .o w ........." "",.owow.,w.·.·.·owow.·.,·.wow.·,.·,=",·.·.·.·.·m. 164 1. 2. The Term 'Geographically Disadvantaged' State ................................................................ 166 2. Sharing of EEZ's Living Resources ..... ................................... 170 4 CHAPfER FOUR: STATE PRACTICE RELATED TO THE EEZ: 1975- TO PRESENT ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ............ ............ .... 189 Introduction Section I : The Territorial Sea Trend .. ............ .................... ................ 190 Section II : The Exclusive Fishery Zone [EFZ] Trend .............................. 193 Section III : The EEZ Claims and their Conceptual Content ....................... 200 A. The Evolution of EEZ Claims from 1975 to 1996 ........................... 200 B. The General Ingredients of the EEZ in National Claims ..................... 204 1. Definition of the EEZ . ................................... ........... .......... 205 2. The Legal Status of the EEZ ................................................. 206 3. Delimitation of the EEZ between Adjacent and Opposite States ......... 209 4. The Basic Rights and Jurisdiction of the Coastal State in the EEZ ..... 211 4. 1. The Coastal State's Rights Contained in Art.56 (1)(a) ............. 211 4. 2. The Coastal State's Rights Contained in Art. 56 (1) (b) ........... 212 5 .. )'he Basic Rights of the Generality of States in Foreign EEZs .......... 216 Section IV: The Specific Legal Regimes Regulating the Various Activities in the EEZ in State Practice ............................................... 220 A. The EEZ Fisheries System in Coastal St~tes Practjce ......................... 220 1. Coastal States Conservation and Management Responsibilities ......... 221 2. Optimum Utilization and Foreign Access .................................... 223 2. 1.' Criteria of Access .......................................................... 228 2. L 1. Reference to the Provisions of Article 69 and 70 (LL/G·DSs) ....................................................... 228 2. 1. 2. States whose Fleets Habitually Fished in the Waters Now Encompassed by the EEZ .......... ........................... 232 2. 1. 3. States which Cooperated in Research and Identification of Stocks ............................................................ 237 2. 1. 4. The Requirements of Developing States in the Sub-Region or Region in Harvesting Part of the Surplus ............... 238 2. 2. Conditions Governing Access ........ ................................ 238 2. 2. 1. Licensing and Payment of Fees ................................ 239 2. 2. 2. Conservation and Management Measures .................... 240 2. 2. 3. Reporting Requirement and Observers ....................... 241 2.2.4. Joint Ventures ·.·.w.·.·.·.·.·.·. ..· .·.w.·.w. ., . ... ·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·. ... "" .. ,~, ........ ·.·.·,., ... w... .· .. w."w ... ·.·. ....., . ...· .·.w." 241 2.2.5. Cooperation in Research and Fishery Development Assistance ................................................................................................................... 242 2. 2. 6. Other Conditions .·.·.·.·.wuow.'w.·.,·.·.·.·."'·.w.·owu.w.·.·.·.'''w,.·.wow~w"'wow.·."'·.,·.·.~.·.'''w.·.w.,·.,·"'·"'w.·. 243 3. Surveillance and Enforcement ..... ................ ......................... 243 4. State Practice on the Specific Regimes Contained in Articles 63 to 67 of the LOS Convention ....................................................... 247 4. 1. Resources Located in More than one Zone .......................... 248 4. 2. Resources Occuring both Within the EEZ and the High Seas .... 249 4.3. Marine Mammals············u ... =w .............................· .·.·.·.","wow.·ow.·.·.·.w.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.w.w.·.·.·"'·.·.w.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·owow.·.·.·.·.·ow_.,·ow., 251 5 4. 4. Anadromous Species ................................. .................. 252 4. 5. Catadromous Species .................................................. 254 4. 6. Highly Migratory Species ..... ...... ..... ....... ....... ...... ......... 255 B. The Specific Regimes Relating to Marine Research, Artificial Islands and Installations, and the Protection of the Marine Environment ................. 259 1. The Regime of the Conduct of Marine Scientific Research (MSR) in the EEZ in State Practice ...................................................... 260 2. The Specific Regime Relating to Artificial Islands, Installations and Structures in State Practice ................................................... 263 3. The Preservation and Protection of the Marine Environment in the EEZ in State Practice ....... .............. ....... .... ........ ....... .... ...... ....... 265 CHAPTER FIVE: THE PRESENT SITUATION OF THE CONCEPT AND REGIME OF THE EEZ IN INTERNATIONAL CUSTOMARY LAW ....... 311 Introduction Section I : Prerequisites for the Emergence of a Rule of International Custom and their Application to the 200 Miles ,EEZ .................................... 311 A. Gener~lity and Uniformity of the Practice ..................................... 312 B. Continuation or Repetition of the Practice over a Considerable Period of 'Lime ..... , ......................................................................... . 316 C. Conception that the Practice is Required by Prevailing International Law ( opI.n.I o J.u rI.S) ...................................................................... . 317 D. Protest and Acquiescence .................................................... ~ ... 318 Section II : The Scope of the EEZ General Concept in Customary International Law........ ..... ..... ... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ... ........ 320 A. National Practice .............. ..... .............. ........ ...................... ... 320 B. Recent Jurisprudence of the ICJ ................................................ 322 C. Opinions of Publicists ............................................................ 323 Section ill: The Situation of the EEZ Specific Regime in Customary International Law ......................................................... 325 A. The LOS Convention's EEZ Provisions Concerning Fisheries ............. 326 B. The LOS Convention's Specific Regimes Concerning the Coastal State's Non-Economic Rights and Duties in the EEZ ................................. 331 C. The Provision of Article 59 Concerning Residual Rights .................... 332 FINAL CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................... 344 Bibliography ..................................................................................... 350 Appendices ....... .............. ....... ..... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ..... ....... 371 6 SUMMARY Under the traditional law of the sea, the sea was divided into the territorial sea and the high seas, and in each case different rules apply. In the fonner, the coastal state has full sovereignty subject to the right of innocent passage, while on the high seas all states enjoy the various uses of the sea subject, of course, to the reasonable use doctrine and to other limitations imposed by international law. This traditional dualism has recently come to an end as a result of the creation of the EEZ, whose specific regime is embodied, particularly in Part V of the LOS Convention The creation of the EEZ has occured through a combination of treaty fonnulation and state practice. Numerous states from both developing and developed worlds, including the United States, Canada, the members of the EEC established the"ir own 200 miles jurisdictional zone in the second half of the 1970s, simultaneous to the consensus reached in this respect during UNCLOS III negotiations. After the Convention was signed, the United States and the USSR restructured their 200 miles EFZs into the EEZ in 1983 and 1984 respectively. On a worldwide basis states are currently implementing aspec~s of the new law relating to,the 200 miles EEZ, particularly those rules appertaining to fisheries, which emerged from UNCLOS III negotiations and are embodied in the LOS Convention, though it is a selective process of implementation. The new propositions are essentially being put into effect as customary law on the basis that they have received general recognition. Although the development of the EEZ has attracted the attention of international law publicists from both developing and developed states, the largest part of the ensuing literature in this field focuses on the evolutionary stages of the concept and its legal content as fonnulated at UNCLOS III. Some more recent few writtings have dealt also with the issue of implementation of the LOS Convention's EEZ provisions, but the results attained in this field do not coincide. Thus, though there is a general agreement that the most important evolution regarding the implementation of the principles of the LOS Convention is that a 200 mile EEZ is already an accepted rule of public international law , opinions diverge in tenns of exactly what this acceptance entails, what are the basic component of this new rule, and what specific rights and duties it encompasses. This thesis attempts to study, in a comprehensive manner, the EEZ rule in both the LOS Convention and in state practice. Its central aim is to try to establish with 7 exactitude the scope of the rule that has been taken into international custom. In this respect, after giving in chapter one a short expose on the prevailing rules of the law of the sea that had governed all maritime spaces before UNCLOS ill, serving as a background against which a better apprehension of the LOS Convention's EEZ provisions can be attained,an analysis of the rights of both coastal states and third states in the EEZ and their corresponding duties is provided in chapters two and three respectively. It has been asserted that, although a coastal state by claiming an EEZ would only enjoy specific functional rights, viz., the fields of activities they are connected with are explicitly defined, the vagueness often found in the wording of the Convention makes the situation not clear in all respect. While such a phenomenon may widen the functional limitations placed upon the general right of freedom of the high seas, it does not seem, however, to have any bearing on the high seas quality of the principal freedom of overflight, of laying cables and pipelines, and the freedom of navigation. Chapter foUr is a thorough examination and analysis of state practice as evidenced in EFZ and EEZ claims against the yardstick of LOS Convention. This is followed by a last chapter determining the scope of the rule that has been picked up in the new custom relating.to the EEZ. In this connection, it is asserted that state practice gives strong evidence that a general right to claim a jurisdictional maritime zone as defined in Articles 55 and 57 of the LOS Convention, viz., extending seaward up to 200 miles from the baselines, is firmly established in international customary law. Moreover, state practice proves also that within the asserted zone the claimant state can invoke and claim all the general functional rights and jurisdictions described in Article 56. (1) (a) and (b) of the LOS Convention. But, if it chooses to assert only one of those basic rights, its action remains within the confines of internationa law, but other states retain the possibilities they have had, before the new customary rule came into being, because under both the LOS Convention and state practice the EEZ does not exist ipso facto as does the continental shelf, but has to be claimed. Furthermore, state practice suggets also that the basic rights of third states of freedom of overflight, of laying cables and pipelines and of navigation included in Article 58 (1) of the LOS Convention have been received into the new international custom relating to the 200 miles EEZ, thus affirming the functional and sui generis nature of the zone agreed upon at UNCLOS Ill. Consequently, the fear of the eventual territorialization of the EEZ by means of state practice, which has been expressed in the aftermath of UNCLOS Ill, has proven unwarranted. 8 In addition, state practice indicates further that the conservation goals embodied in Article 61, and utilization principles included in Article 62, as well as the enforcement provisions enshrined in Article 73 have been also picked up into the new customary rule. 9