BORN TO RAGE? : A CASE STUDY OF THE WARRIOR GENE BY SARAH ANNE MURPHY A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of WAKE FOREST UNIVERSITY GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SCIENCES in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS Bioethics May 2012 Winston-Salem, North Carolina Approved By: Michael J. Hyde, Ph.D., Advisor Nancy M. P. King, J.D., Chair John C. Moskop, Ph.D Dedication and acknowledgements First and foremost I would like to thank my family and friends for their unwavering support throughout this process and my education. With their loving support I have been able to accomplish a higher level of education than I had ever anticipated. Thank you for encouraging me to continue fighting, even when I didn’t think I had much strength left to forge on. I also would like to dedicate my thesis to the 32 innocent victims of the Virginia Tech tragedy on April 16th, 2007. As our understanding of human behavior continues to grow, I pray we find a way to utilize such knowledge to prevent future attacks, and other innocent victims. You will never be forgotten. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract………………………………………………………………………………...…iii Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...…..iv Chapter 1: Introduction to Behavioral Genetics……………..……………………………1 Chapter 2: Academic and Scholarly Coverage of the Warrior Gene…………………….18 Chapter 3: Case Study: Born to Rage? ……………..…………………………………...40 Chapter 4: The Criminal Justice System and Final Recommendations…….……………62 References……………..………………………………………….……………………...75 Appendix……………..……………………………………………………………….....86 Curriculum Vitae………………………………………………….……………………110 ii ABSTRACT Behavioral genetic findings can change the way individuals feel about their own behavior and DNA. Depending on how individuals are exposed to these research findings, and how the results are presented, the results can determine how an individual internalizes the presented information. This internalization can alter the way an individual understands the relationship between free will and genetic determinism. These internalizations then carry over in the criminal justice system primarily in the mitigation stage of criminal court cases. By exploring academic and popular media coverage of the MAOA-L gene variant, also known as the warrior gene, I outline the differences between academic and popular media. Furthermore, I analyze a television show: Born to Rage?, and outline its coverage of controversial topics, use of field experts, images and language. I conclude that research findings regarding the MAOA-L gene variant should not be used, especially within the court room due to the infancy of the science and inconsistency of science regarding neurotransmitters and aggressive behavior. iii Introduction The focus of this thesis is behavioral genetic research, primarily research associated with aggressive and antisocial behavior, and how its findings are disseminated to the public. Throughout this thesis, the MAOA gene variant, also known as the “warrior gene,” is discussed, from its discovery in the laboratory to its role in the criminal justice system. Behavioral genetic research dissemination is evolving, and its dissemination is no longer limited to just the academic sphere but now includes popular media outlets. The use of popular media for the communication of scientific findings generates specific concerns regarding how the scientific information means when exposed to audiences, in other words how is information presented to the audience and the subsequent results. In this thesis, the analysis of a television show serves as a case study that highlights key issues related to communicating behavioral genetic findings. Dissemination of research findings is an important step in the scientific process. Research findings are only useful when disseminated in a way such that the findings may be applied to real situations outside of the laboratory. Behavioral genetic research findings have the power to change the way individuals look at themselves, as well as the criminal justice system. Use of the MAOA gene variant in criminal cases is already having prominent effects on mitigation of criminal sentencing. Outside of the courtroom, the implications of MAOA research on populations can be seen in the instance of the Maori population in New Zealand (Crampton & Parkin, 2007). The use of such behavioral research findings are having significant impacts on society in and out of the courtroom and therefore need to be monitored more closely to ensure that correct information is being disseminated to the public. iv The MAOA gene, located on the X chromosome, encodes for monoamine oxidase A (MAOA), an enzyme that breaks down amine neurotransmitters, such as norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine (Raine, 2008). When these neurotransmitters are not broken down in the body, excess neurotransmitters interfere with communication among neurons, leading to abnormally aggressive and antisocial behavior. A specific mutation of this gene can lead to a specific type of allele, MAOA-L, which means the MAOA gene is expressed at a reduced rate. This low expression rate leads to the production of a limited amount of MAOA, which results in an excess of neurotransmitters in the body. The resulting abnormal behavior has stimulated research to understand the relationship between genetic makeup, aggressive and antisocial behavior, and the surrounding environment. From these initial findings the media disseminated information at a rapid rate, despite significant questions over the accuracy and evidence supporting the findings. The first chapter provides background information about the field of behavioral genetics. Understanding this field’s history is vital to understanding why it is so complex and controversial to talk about research findings. The field of behavioral genetics is not only providing cutting edge research into why our population behaves the way it does, but also into why individuals act differently from the rest of the population, developing individual characteristics. Furthermore, these individual behaviors, when abnormal, can have harmful effects, such as violent or aggressive behavior. By understanding these violent behaviors and where they develop from, the field of behavioral genetics can perhaps become a preventative field rather than a reactive one. The first chapter also outlines the 1992 conference “Genetic Factors in Crime: Findings, Uses and v Implications” and the controversy surrounding the conference, and discusses the shift in self perception, due to biotechnology and behavioral genetic findings. This change in perception, such as how individuals understand their actions in relation to their genetics, has vast implications. The second chapter analyzes scholarly and popular media coverage of the MAOA gene. The scholarly sphere of communication utilizes academic publications to disseminate research findings in a specific language aimed at a very specific audience. Popular media disseminates research findings in a different way. The use of different media outlets, such as television shows, blogs, and newscasts, allows the information to reach a broader target audience. With this change in audience, it becomes imperative to use different language and tools than those used in the academic sphere. Due to the many differences between these spheres, information can be misinterpreted by the public, leading to incorrect interpretations of findings and the shunning of an important field of behavioral research. In New Zealand, the Maori tribe became a topic of controversy in the scientific field because a group of scientists incorrectly applied research findings to the whole indigenous Maori population, which led to the negative characterization of this population (Lea & Chambers, 2007). To provide more evidence on the use of popular media as a scientific communication tool, the television show Born to Rage is analyzed in the third chapter. Born to Rage aired on the National Geographic channel on December 14, 2010. The show charted the journey of Henry Rollins, once a member of the highly aggressive American punk band Anti-Flag, and his undergoing of a DNA test to determine if he had the “warrior gene”. Throughout Rollin’s journey he met with groups of individuals who vi were also tested for the gene, and he gives his personal insight as to whether he believes they have the “warrior gene” on the basis of their past history of violence. This case study highlights how the language and visuals of popular media can guide the audience to interpret scientific findings in a manner different from that promoted by academic coverage. The final chapter highlights my recommendations for the use of popular media when disseminating behavioral genetic research. I also discuss the criminal case against Bradley Waldroup and how behavioral genetic information was used incorrectly during the mitigation portion of the trial. Due to the nature of the MAOA-L gene variant and its association with aggression and antisocial behavior, legal implications are the primary focus of the fourth chapter. vii Chapter 1: Introduction to Behavioral Genetics The field of behavioral genetics presents many bioethical issues, very much like the field of genetics has, but by focusing on individual behaviors the field can develop internal and individual bioethics topics; the most significant topic being the contention between free will and determinism. One way individuals are exposed to these topics is through media coverage. When media coverage is directed by other factors such as newsworthiness and differences in reporting styles, scientific information can be presented in differing ways. These changes in presentation can lead to misunderstandings of current science and in turn alter the way in which individuals internalize the debate between free will and determinism. These individual perspectives become vital in regards to the criminal justice system where behavioral genetic evidence is already being implemented despite the novelty of the research findings. The field of bioethics has dealt with this contention between determinism and genetics before but the specific field of behavioral genetics stirs emotions and can become very controversial. Behavioral genetics is a multi-disciplinary field involving such academic areas as humanities, biology, genetics, psychology, and social science. Eric Parens describes the difference between medical and behavioral genetics: “roughly, medical genetics studies the genetic influence on those traits or behaviors that traditionally have come within the purview of medical doctors – cancer, diabetes, [and] hypertension. Behavioral genetics studies the genetic influence on those traits or behaviors that traditionally have come within the purview of psychologists (and psychiatrists)” (Parens, 2004, p. S6). Plomin predicts that psychologists will soon use DNA markers in much the same way as they currently use biological markers such as hormones when deciding on treatment plans. Plomin describes two contrasting views of molecular genetics and their relation to 1 behavior: 1) "One-gene, one-disorder" hypothesis (OGOD) and 2) Quantitative trait loci (QTL). OGOD outlines rare cases of a single gene mutation leading directly to one disorder, in which the mutation is a necessary and sufficient cause of the disorder. QTL describes a hypothesis that assumes that in order to influence a trait there must be multiple genes affected to varying degrees; in effect, QTL represents propensities rather than determinate diagnosis. These two theories each support different branches of science, but they could ultimately work together to further our understanding of complex human behaviors. "Molecular biology traditionally favors the OGOD hypothesis, whereas quantitative genetics leans toward QTL... The merger of quantitative genetics and molecular genetics will be synergistic for the investigation of complex human behaviors" (Plomin, 1995, p. 117). Plomin argues that both of these hypotheses are likely to be in action when dealing with complex behaviors such as aggression, but that increased twin and adoption studies are needed to truly test these complex theories. Currently, traits such as depression, bipolar disorder, intelligence and aggression are being analyzed in the field of behavioral genetics. In this thesis I will focus on aggression. Behavioral genetics explores why humans behave differently as individuals, why we act the way that we do, and what it means to be human. Individual variation is beginning to be explained by combining the discourse of environmental and genetic factors, and this research field is beginning to address a host of social topics, including intelligence, sexuality, personality and, more controversially, violence. Why, as a human race, do we care so much about why we are the way that we are? There are many reasons, but a strong driving factor is the prevention and ending of human suffering due 2