Bonn Agreement Aerial Operations Handbook, 2009 PART 1: GENERAL PART 2: REMOTE SENSING AND OPERATIONAL GUIDELINES ................................................. 1 1 Remote Sensing .................................................................................................................................. 4 1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 4 1.2 Sensors – General Requirements ......................................................................................... 4 1.3 Side Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR) .................................................................................. 4 1.4 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) ........................................................................................... 4 1.5 Ultra Violet Line Scanners or Camera (UV) ...................................................................... 5 1.6 Infrared Line Scanner or Camera (IR) ................................................................................ 5 1.7 Microwave Radiometer (MWR) .............................................................................................. 5 1.8. Forward Looking InfraRed (FLIR) ......................................................................................... 5 1.9 Laser Fluorosensor (LFS) ......................................................................................................... 5 1.10 Low Light Level Television Camera (LLLTV) ................................................................. 6 1.11 Night Identification System ................................................................................................ 6 1.12 Photographic Camera (PHOTO) ......................................................................................... 6 1.13 Video Camera (VC)................................................................................................................. 6 1.14 Further Sensor Developments and Improvements .................................................... 6 1.15 Sensor Systems ....................................................................................................................... 6 1.16 Platforms .................................................................................................................................... 7 1.17 Satellites ..................................................................................................................................... 7 1.18 Major Pollution Incidents ..................................................................................................... 8 1.19 Routine Patrols ......................................................................................................................... 8 2 Tour de Horizon ................................................................................................................................... 9 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 9 2.2 Tour de Horizon Flight Planning ............................................................................................ 9 2.3 Tour de Horizon Routing Points ............................................................................................. 9 2.4 Tour de Horizon Weather Criteria ......................................................................................... 9 2.5 Tour de Horizon Flight Conduct ............................................................................................. 9 2.6 Detection Investigation ............................................................................................................ 9 2.7 Detection and observatoin Reporting.................................................................................. 9 2.8 Detection Data Security ......................................................................................................... 10 2.9 National Tour de Horizon Reports ...................................................................................... 10 2.10 National Stations / Centres within the Tour de Horizon Area.............................. 10 2.11 National Focal Points within the Tour de horizon Area ........................................... 10 3 Co-ordinated Extended Pollution Control Operation (CEPCO). ....................................... 16 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 16 3.2 CEPCO Objectives ..................................................................................................................... 16 Part II Remote Sensing Page 2 PART 2: REMOTE SENSING AND OPERATIONAL GUIDELINES 3.3 Participating Countries ............................................................................................................ 16 3.4 Area of CEPCO ............................................................................................................................ 16 3.5 Planning and Operational Conditions of CEPCO Flights ............................................. 16 3.7 Operating Airport/Airbase...................................................................................................... 17 3.8 Establishment of an Operational Command Centre (CC) .......................................... 17 3.9 Communications ........................................................................................................................ 17 3.10 Handover .................................................................................................................................. 17 3.11 Briefing and Debriefing ....................................................................................................... 18 4 Aerial Surveillance Exercises ........................................................................................................ 19 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 19 4.2 Requirements for Aerial Surveillance Exercises ............................................................ 19 4.3 Conclusion.................................................................................................................................... 19 Bonn Agreement Aerial Operations Handbook Page 3 1 Remote Sensing 1.1 Introduction Remote sensing in general is the detection and identification of phenomena at a distance from the object of interest using the human capabilities or special sensors. Modern remote sensing instruments are normally based on optical, electronic or, sometimes, chemical techniques. During the last decades, considerable steps forward have been achieved in the development of new sensors but also in the improvement of existing sensors and their application. 1.2 Sensors – General Requirements To be of use in dealing with (oil) pollution incidents, remote sensing instruments have to provide the capability to a clear and unambiguous indication of the pollution on sea surface from a reasonable distance under normal conditions. In addition it is desirable to have means to identify the type of pollution and the source the pollution originates from as well as means for estimating the volume. In this respect it is mentioned here that for estimations of oil pollution the observers in Bonn Agreement member states also make use of the Bonn Agreement Oil Appearance Code and for reporting the outcomes of the observation the Standard Pollution Reporting Log is used. For airborne application, the equipment should fit into the selected type of aircraft being compatible with the aircraft power supplies. It is recommended that all sensors are integrated into one operating system and signals are real-time presented on a display as well as recorded on tape or disc, including data annotation. The recorded data can thus be analysed in a ground processing station if required. Sensors fall into broad categories according to their mode of operation. Active sensors emit a signal, and measure some feature of the interaction of the signal and the target – usually by analysing the return echo. Radar Systems and Laser Fluorimetry are examples of active sensors used for pollution detection. Passive sensors do not emit a signal, but rely instead on emissions from the target – usually the reflection or transmission of ambient electromagnetic radiation. Ultra Violet and Infrared line scanners as well as passive microwave radiometers are examples of these types of sensors. In general, active scanners can operate at any time of day and to some extent can penetrate clouds. Passive sensors will only be functional when there is sufficient ambient radiation, and this usually means during daytime. 1.3 Side Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR) The SLAR is an active sensor that measures the roughness of the sea surface. Microwaves in the region of three centimetres are transmitted in pulses and the reflection from the surface is used to build up a radar picture on both sides of the aircraft. Capillary waves on the sea surface tension resulting in a dampening of the capillary waves, will show up against the surrounding clear water. SLAR is the most common device in use at present. Under normal conditions, between wind forces 1 up to 7 Beaufort; the system will cover an area of up to 40 kilometres on either side of the aircraft. When flying undisturbed at an altitude along a straight track the image building up will cover a total area of 80 kilometres in width although there is a gap directly under the aircraft corresponding with 1.5 times the altitude. Within the area covered the presence of, even thin layers, surface pollution can be detected, again provided that there is sufficient roughness at sea surface to detect clutter. The spatial resolution of SLAR on the average lies around 20 metres, which means that when two objects at the same distance from the antenna should have a separation of at least 20 metres to be detected as two objects. For oil detection the polarisation of the system is Vertical and for ice detection often Horizontal polarisation is used. The main disadvantage of the SLAR that counts for all radar systems is that it responds to any phenomena that suppress capillary waves. For example certain current patterns, ice and surface slicks associated with biological activity can all produce falls targets. Conclusively it is emphasised that though SLAR is the primary long range detection sensor the only information obtained is an indication that “something” is floating at the surface probably requiring further investigations. 1.4 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) With respect to the subject, detection of surface pollution, the SAR is similar to the SLAR. From a technical point a view there some important differences. Where the SLAR uses a fixed antenna length the SAR system can define the antenna length by sampling echo’s over a period of time. The mechanical part of the antenna is very small. The advantage of the SAR is its improved spatial resolution that remains the same over the entire area covered. For special applications multi-polarised SAR can be delivered. Part II Remote Sensing Page 4 Improved resolution is strongly related with the cost involved. Resolution down to one metre is possible, but at relatively high costs. At this stage of development SAR is used in satellites and in special projects such as terrain height mapping. Operational use of SAR in aircraft with the objective to detect oil is not yet common. As developments continue and expectations of lower costs it might be worthwhile to consider a SAR, especially in those cases that multi tasking is applicable to the surveillance system. 1.5 Ultra Violet Line Scanners or Camera (UV) Surface pollution, especially oil, is a good reflector of the ultraviolet component of sunlight. An ultraviolet scanner or camera is a passive device detecting reflected ultraviolet with a wavelength of about 0.3 micrometers. The sensor is mounted vertically in the belly of the aircraft and can build up a continuous image of an entire slick, even the extremely thin areas, as the aircraft passes over the slick. It cannot distinguish between types of pollution or different layer thickness. The application of the sensor is limited to daylight conditions. Contrary to the opinion that a UV sensor is not necessary because of the video- camera in the FLIR, it is emphasized that the operational wavelength of the UV goes beyond the visual light of a video-camera and will therefore “see” more than the video. 1.6 Infrared Line Scanner or Camera (IR) The IR is very similar in operation to the UV and the two are very often combined in a UV-IR line scanner. The sensor detects infrared radiation with a wavelength in the band of 8-12 micrometers emitted from the oil. These layers of oil radiate more slowly than the surrounding clear sea and shows up as variations in grey levels (or in defined colours). Thicker layers (greater than about 0.5 millimetres) will absorb sunlight more rapidly than the surrounding sea and show white on the display. The Infrared sensor provides the capability within limits to obtain information on the relative layer thickness of oil slicks on the water surface. The sensor does not penetrate the water. It is not as sensitive to oil as the UV and so comparison of the outputs from the two sensors, especially when presented real time parallel to each other on the display, will show the thicker parts of the slick. This information is essential when combating activities are executed, as the combating vessels should concentrate on these thicker parts. It is obvious that other temperatures-related effects, such as cooling water discharges, can mislead the IR sensor. The IR is used in both daylight and darkness however, it needs clear field of view to the surface pollution. Clouds and fog will hamper the functionality of the sensor. 1.7 Microwave Radiometer (MWR) The passive sensor MWR is rather similar to the UV/IR-LS. It detects microwave radiation with wavelengths between 0.3 and 3 centimetres. Oil appears always to be at higher temperatures than seawater in the microwave region and the temperature depends on the thickness of the oil layer. The relationship is not a simple one, but by careful selection of operating wavelengths and careful analysis of the results the system provides the capability of a relatively accurate account of the volume of oil in the slick. A minimum layer thickness of 0.1 millimetre of oil is required to make proper use of the system. Recognising that operational discharges according the MARPO regulations or even much higher will not result in layer thickness over 0.1 mm. 1.8. Forward Looking InfraRed (FLIR) Forward Looking Infrared is similar to the IR sensor (1.6) however, it is installed in a gimble that provides the opportunity to turn around horizontally and has a tilt and pitch function. In the gimble one finds the gyro stabilized multi sensor imager. Medium-wave Infrared and optional sensors such as High-Definition TV, High-definition Low-light; HD Zoom sensor and Laser Rangefinder. Most modern systems have the capability to lock on a target. The functionality with regard “detailed detection of oil” is like the scanner. The IR uses the same spectrum, although the latest generation of EO/IR turret mostly uses spectrum 3 to 5 microns, instead of 8 to 12 microns . Another advantage of the FLIR is that it can be combined with a video-camera or LLTV in the same gimble. The FLIR gives the possibility to stay at a distance, unlike the scanner for which the aircraft needs to pass over the slick. 1.9 Laser Fluorosensor (LFS) This is an active sensor emitting an intense beam of coherent light, generated by a laser; to the sea surface immediately blow the aircraft. The receiving apparatus is designed not to respond to the direct Bonn Agreement Aerial Operations Handbook Page 5 reflection of the beam, but to detect and to analyse the fluorescence of the pollution resulting from the laser strike. Currently laser is operationally tested in Germany and indicated the capability to provide information on the type of pollution. The experience is limited so far. 1.10 Low Light Level Television Camera (LLLTV) The LLLTV can be filtered to operate in the ultraviolet region and so provide an ultraviolet analogue to the thermal imager. When used in the visible region, LLLTV can provide the possibility of imaging ship’s names or other identifying features in near darkness. 1.11 Night Identification System Detection of discharging ships during hours of darkness is possible by the applications provided by the SLAR or SAR. Identification of the ship is a necessity with respect to gathering evidence. There are a number of Night Identification Systems available using a variety of sensors, LLLTV with IR / Laser illumination for example. The main requirement is to be able to read and record the ship’s name in darkness. 1.12 Photographic Camera (PHOTO) Conventional photography provides a valuable, simple and readily understood record of the scene of an incident or operational discharge. When vertically mounted in the aircraft the camera contributes to the evidence to an official statement. Oblique photography in general satisfies the public and the Courts as part of the evidence rather than the more complex imagery from the other sensors. It is recommended that camera are an integrated part of the remote sensing system and that on the photographs data- annotation is printed. 1.13 Video Camera (VC) Much the same applies to video recordings as to photography. The advantage of video is that it provides a more instant record and of course a moving picture. After landing the crew can immediately present an overview of the situation at sea, provided required equipment is available. 1.14 Further Sensor Developments and Improvements Sensor manufacturers presumably will continue, in some cases on request of the user, to develop new sensors or improve the existing ones. Especially with regard the difficulties encountered by the operational users, like ourselves, where it concerns the discrimination between substance discharged and capabilities to estimate volumes in near future proposals are expected. Worth mentioning is the application of spectral imaging scanners. Remote sensing for the purpose of the detection of oil slicks, in some countries, is slowly shifting towards earth observation in the broadest sense. The objective is to make efficient use of the available means (aircraft) and also to fill gaps in the existing sensor package. In general it is recommended to closely follow the market and study the new sensors or improvements. Digital photo cameras, improved navigation (DGPS) and others can be very useful tools for the Bonn Agreement members. Automatic Identification of ships suspected of violating MARPOL regulations have become available through AIS and are used in combination with the satellite SAR or the SLAR or as a separate sensor. 1.15 Sensor Systems As stated before sensor operation can be most effective when handled through one integrated sensor system. A one-person operating system provides the capability to switch on/off the sensors and to route the data to storage and presentation. The operator selects all sensors required and depending on the data presentation needed to identify the pollution combine the data from different sensors. Navigational data obtained from the aircraft system is used as input into the operating system and superimposed on the sensor data. Data handling, for presentation and storage, is important to be able to process the raw data in a ground processing station after landing. Storage on retractable hard disc, floppy disc, or tape are possibilities. Images as presented on the display to the operator can also be stored on video tape for quick presentation to authorities. In addition, as a result of data handling in a digitised form the feature is to transmit the data directly to a ground station. Some systems allow for the direct transmission of imagery from an aircraft using either fast but short-range VHF or slower but long-range HF radio. Recognising that when a ship is caught “red Part II Remote Sensing Page 6 handed” and is bound for a port in the coastal state the advantage of a down link system can be that images or photo’s are directly sent to the Port State Control Authorities. 1.16 Platforms World wide, most experience with remote sensing has been obtained using small fixed-wing aircraft. Selecting a type of aircraft for remote sensing operations depends on a list of aspects based on the objectives to be met once having the tool. Short listed here it is worth mentioning size and weight of the instruments to be installed, the area to be covered and the endurance. Selection of the sensor package also depends on the tasks to be fulfilled. Search-and-Rescue normally requires a homing device; border patrol may be difficult without a 360 degree radar. The standard package for pollution patrol flights consists of SLAR, UV/IR–LS, photo-cameras and can be extended with a MWR and/or LSF. If operations during darkness are an option an Identification camera is useful. A number of different types of aircraft are in use by the Bonn Agreement Parties and can be visited during CEPCOs and Bonn Agreement exercises. Attempts have been made to use special sensors, such as cameras and thermal imagers, on board vessels. Mounted on the masts sometimes images can be obtained. However, in general it is found that the platforms are not stable and even when mounted in high masts still too low for good use. In the event of an actual combat operation captive balloons, lifted from a vessels deck, are useful tools. Mounted on a platform hanging under the balloon, a video camera and preferably an IR-camera provides details on the oil slick to be combated directly to the master of the vessel. The imagery assists the master to manoeuvre his ship towards and into the oil slick (thicker parts). 1.17 Satellites The detection of oil and other harmful substance discharges by means of remote sensing systems in aircraft has been described in previous paragraphs. Relatively new is remote sensing by means of satellites. The synthetic aperture radar (SAR) on board the satellites, as installed in the Envisat and the Radarsat, proved in various international test programmes to be able to detect water surface phenomena even as small as 200 m2, from an altitude of 900 km. The Low Resolution SAR images (100 metre) are considered to be comparable to SLAR with regard to detectability. Although the satellite SAR does not discriminate the type of pollution it provides an indication of a possible pollution as well as a clear indication of the location and the dimensions. It is reiterated that the satellite can not (yet) identify the pollution nor the possible polluter and in that respect has the same qualification as the airborne SLAR or SAR. The detected spot has to be verified. Other disadvantages compared to airborne surveillance are the inflexibility of the system as a result of fixed orbit and the repeating cycle. AIS information in combination will provide details on the suspected vessel connected to the detected phenomenon. On the other hand, satellite recordings are independent of weather conditions that are limiting aircraft (like fog or freezing rain). Also the width of the radar coverage path is an advantage. Satellite data, if received in near real time (within 30 minutes after the satellite pass), is useful as an early warning system in case of compatible spills. The use of near real-time satellite data requires a user community with the capability to verify possible surface pollution (oil slicks) by an aircraft. The combined use of satellite and aerial surveillance may provide a cost-effective solution for countries with certain geographical and climatologically conditions. In order to take advantage of availability of satellite SAR images it is recommended to study the orbits of the satellite and the area covered so that the covered area can be incorporated into the aircraft routing. Furthermore the acquisition schedule of the satellite can be used to adjust the flight program of remote sensing aircraft or even reduce the number of flights by having the aircraft on stand-by if the satellite covers the area of interest. On receipt of the imagery obtained from satellite the aircraft may be diverted to check possible pollution or, on the occasion that no pollution has been detected the aircraft may focus on areas not covered by satellite. It is emphasised that satellite SAR can easily provide an overview on possible floating pollution of relatively large sea areas. An early warning system requiring a follow-up by airborne surveillance for at least applying the human eye to verify the detected slick. In many studies a general conclusion is that satellite SAR contributes valuable information but will not replace aerial surveillance. Reference is made to the EU/EMSA Clean Sea Net CSN) programme for up-dated information on the satellite program and the service within CSN. Bonn Agreement Aerial Operations Handbook Page 7 1.18 Major Pollution Incidents When dealing with an oil spillage, the initial function of the remote sensing aircraft will be to build up a picture of the extent of the pollution, and to identify the areas of most concern. The aircraft should run across the affected area using SLAR/SAR at an altitude that provides the best overall image of the slick(s). The preliminary investigation can then be supplemented by scanning the larger or more threatening parts of the slick(s) using close range sensors, such as infrared, ultraviolet, microwave radiometry and laser. Photographs or video should be taken whenever possible, including some of the casualty causing the pollution. Monitoring the spreading and weathering of the slicks should be continued at regular intervals. An additional role for the remote sensing aircraft, in some countries is to direct and guide recovery vessels or spraying aircraft. This will require extended periods in the area identifying relatively thicker parts or more threatening patches of oil. It is particularly important during an incident that the crew of the reconnaissance aircraft reports to the control centre at regular intervals, both to relay the current situation and to check for a change in instructions – the first stages of an incident are always particularly fluid. Regular returns to base will be necessary to provide the hard-copy imagery for the on-scene and overall commanders, unless direct down-link facilities are available to transmit imagery from the aircraft to surface vessels and offices. 1.19 Routine Patrols The primary objective in routine patrolling is to detect combatable oil slicks in an early stage, and to encounter ships and platforms in the act of discharging oil illegally, and to gather sufficient evidence for a prosecution. Contracting Parties have agreed a co-operative approach to aerial surveillance. Planning of the pattern of surveillance is important. Baseline information from earlier surveillance or form ad-hoc observations will indicate those areas in which most effort should be concentrated. Statistical techniques can be used to relate surveillance intensity to the probability of intercepting an illegal discharge – this will indicate the level of effort necessary and allow conclusions to be drawn about the incidence of MARPOL contravention. During a mission the crew will maintain the STANDARD REPORTING LOG, noting all relevant information on mystery slicks and actual polluters observed. A separate form will be used for reporting polluting vessels according IMO regulations. Possible offenders should be imaged and photographed. It is important that the photographs and the imagery show that the vessel is the only possible source of the oil. The vessel’s name should be photographed, if possible in a way that identifies it unambiguously as the offender, and recorded in the log. Nowadays the IMO number of the vessel is often found on the ships poop where also the name and the port of registration are found. Communication should be established to invite the person on the bridge to provide information on last port of call and destination as well as to explain the discharge observed. On return to base, if not directly from the air, the evidence form the offence should be treated, as evidence to court and all precautions required by the law of the land should be applied in securing it and transferring it to the competent authorities. Of each routine mission the logs should be taken for interpretation and statistical analysis and the results recorded in a database for use in periodic reports and future planning. Part II Remote Sensing Page 8 2 Tour de Horizon 2.1 Introduction The Bonn Agreement Contracting Parties have adopted a plan for all coastal states to conduct periodic and random surveillance flights for the detection of spillages in the offshore oil and gas industry areas in the North Sea. Irrespective of the main aim, all other suspected polluters are also to be identified and reported. These surveillance flights are entitled ‘Tour de Horizon Flights’. The programme for Tour de Horizon flights is prepared during the annual Working Group on Operational, Technical and Scientific Questions concerning Counter Pollution Activities (OTSOPA) meeting. 2.2 Tour de Horizon Flight Planning The country conducting the Tour de Horizon flights is to pass the ‘Tour’ plan to the responsible authorities of the other countries national focal point by PRIORITY message, ideally one month before the planned Tour, and at the latest one week preceding the first flight to avoid any possibility of the flight confliction with a ‘national’ flight. The message is to be treated as confidential until the ‘Tour’ has been completed. The ‘Tour’ Plan should include date(s), times, routing, refuelling and over night stops. Routing should be described using the Tour de Horizon Routing Points at Annex A. The flights are to be planned and conducted so that other countries’ territories are not infringed, unless permission has been granted. 2.3 Tour de Horizon Routing Points The Tour de Horizon routing points are mainly based on the geographic locations of fixed offshore installations, offset for safety reasons. Some points along shipping routes have also been included. It is not practicable to include mobile and exploratory installations; the positions of these rigs may be obtained from national authorities or focal point, energy or helicopter support authorities. The routing points, all prefixed ‘T’, are at Annex A. 2.4 Tour de Horizon Weather Criteria A Tour de Horizon flight is to be performed under suitable weather conditions as determined by the national authority under taking the ‘Tour’. 2.5 Tour de Horizon Flight Conduct Tour de Horizon flights are to be conducted in accordance with normal civil aviation regulations. It is recommended that the regulations for operating in the North Sea should be thoroughly checked before commencing the ‘Tour’. The Air Traffic Procedures for Operations within the UK Offshore Area - 2004 are at Annex B. 2.6 Detection Investigation All detections should be treated in the same way regardless of whether they are considered legal or illegal, from whatever the source, known or unknown. Every detection should be investigated and the fullest data set possible collected and recorded using the available remote sensing and photographic equipment. Details of Discharges from Offshore Installations are at Part 3, Chapter 9, Annex C. 2.7 Detection and observatoin Reporting Because of the known problems in linking detections of oil from offshore installations with a breach in the OSPAR recommendation, all detections should be reported so an investigation can be initiated. In order to initiate an effective investigation, the flight crews should ensure that, as quickly as possible, any detection associated with, or near, an offshore installation is reported to the national pollution control agency under whose jurisdiction the installation operates according to the relevant national rules and regulations or as follows:  Observations estimated to contain over 1m3 of oil must be reported in flight and at the earliest opportunity. Aircrew should send reports directly to the appropriate reporting agency for prompt relay to the appropriate national authority for pollution control  All detections associated with, or near, offshore installations must be reported as soon as possible after landing to the national reporting agency for prompt relay to the national Bonn Agreement Aerial Operations Handbook Page 9