Also by James Bamfbrd The Puzzle Palace ANATOMY OF THE ULTRA-SECRET NATIONAL SECURITY AGENCY FROM THE COLD WAR THROUGH THE DAWN OF A NEW CENTURY JAMES B AMFORD DOUBLEDAY New York London Toronto Sydney Auckland PUBLISHED BY DOUBLEDAY A division of Random House, Inc. 1540 Broadway, New York, New York 10036 DOUBLEDAY and the portrayal of an anchor with a dolphin are trademarks of Doubleday, a division of Random House, Inc. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bamford, James. Body of secrets: anatomy of the ultra-secret National Security Agency. from the Cold War through the dawn of a new century / James Bamford.—1st ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. United States. National Security Agency—History. 2. Electronic intelligence—United States—History. 3. Cryptography—United States—History. I. Title. UB256.U6 B36 2001 327.1273—dc21 00-058920 ISBN 0-385-49907-8 Book design by Maria Carella Copyright © 2001 by James Bamford All Rights Reserved Printed in the United States of America May 2001 First Edition 9 10 To Mary Ann And to my father, Vincent And in memory of my mother, Katherine A C K N O W L E D G M E N TS My most sincere thanks to the many people who helped bring Body of Secrets to life. Lieutenant General Michael V. Hayden, NSA's director, had the courage to open the agency's door a crack. Major General John E. Morrison (Retired), the dean of the U.S. intelligence community, was always gracious and accommodating in pointing me in the right direc- tions. Deborah Price suffered through my endless Freedom of Informa- tion Act requests with professionalism and good humor. Judith Emmel and Colleen Garrett helped guide me through the labyrinths of Crypto City. Jack Ingram, Dr. David Hatch, Jennifer Wilcox, and Rowena Clough of NSA's National Cryptologic Museum provided endless help in researching the agency's past. Critical was the help of those who fought on the front lines of the cryptologic wars, including George A. Cassidy, Richard G. Schmucker, Marvin Nowicki, John Arnold, Harry O. Rakfeldt, David Parks, John Mastro, Wayne Madsen, Aubrey Brown, John R. DeChene, Rryce Lock- wood, Richard McCarthy, Don McClarren, Stuart Russell, Richard E. Kerr, Jr., James Miller, and many others. My grateful appreciation to all those named and unnamed. Thanks also to David J. Haight and Dwight E. Strandberg of the Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library and to Thomas E. Samoluk of the U.S. Assassinations Records Review Board. Finally I would like to thank those who helped give birth to Body of Secrets, including Kris Dahl, my agent at International Creative Management; Shawn Coyne, my editor at Doubleday; and Bill Thomas, Bette Alexander, Jolanta Benal, Lauren Field, Chris Min, Timothy Hsu, and Sean Desmond.