; March 1997 Short Communications 81 AND R.J. Cooper, 1994. Territory size regulation Shields, L.J. 1976. Telemetric determination of the ac- in Black-shouldered Kites. Auk 111:588-595. tivity offree-ranging rodents; the fine structure ofMi- Hawbecker, A.C. 1940. The nesting of the White-tailed crotus californicus activity patterns. Ph.D. dissertation, Kite in Southern Santa Cruz county, California. Con- Univ, California, Los Angeles, CA U.S.A. dor42:106-111. Stendell, R.C. 1972. The occurrence, food habits, and A . 1942. life history study of the White-tailed nesting strategy of White-tailed Kites in relation to a Kite. Condor 44:267-276. fluctuating vole population. Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. Heinrich, B. 1988. Winter foraging at carcasses by three California, Berkeley, CA U.S.A. sympatric corvids, with emphasis on recruitmentby the Waian, L.B. 1973. The behavioral ecology of the North Raven, Corvus corax. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 23:141—156. American White-tailed Kite (Elanus leucurus majusculus) Knight, S.K. and R.L. Knight. 1983. Aspects of food of the Santa Barbara coastal plain. Ph.D. dissertation, finding by wintering Bald Eagles. Auk 100:477-484. University of California, Santa Barbara, CA U.S.A. Madison, D.M. 1985. Activity rhythms and spacing. Warner, J.S. and R.L. Rudd. 1975. Hunting by the Pages 373-419 in R.H. Tamarin [Ed.], Biology ofNew White-tailed Kite. Condor 77:226-230. World Microtus. Spec. Publ. No. 8, Am. Soc. Mammal. Zar, J.H. 1984. Biostatistical analysis. Prentice Hall, En- Mendelsohn, J.M. and F.M Jaksic. 1989. Hunting be- glewood Cliffs, NJ U.S.A. haviour of Black-shouldered Kites in the Americas, Europe and Australia. Ostrich 60:1-12. Received 23 April 1996; accepted 29 November 1996 RaptorRes. 31(1):81—83 J. © 1997 The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc. Blood Parasites of Nestling Goshawks E.P. Toyne1 Department ofBiology, Imperial College, London SW7 2BB UK R.W. Ashford Department ofParasitology, School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA UK KeyWords: Northern Goshawk Accipiter gentilis; nestling is unfortunate that the precise ages of these birds were un- survival blood parasites. known as this was likely to be the confounding variable. ; The occurrence of blood parasites in nestling North- There are a few studies which have investigated patho- ern Goshawks (Accipiter gentilis) is unknown and, if they genic effects of haematozoa on wild raptors. Ashford et al. do occur, their role as a factor of regulation ofgoshawk (1990, 1991) were unable to demonstrate any effect ofLeu- reproduction is unclear. The aim of this preliminary study was to investigate occurrences of blood parasites cocytozoon toddi on the mortality of nestling or adult Euro- pean Sparrowhawks (Accipiter nisus) in England and Korpi- and to assess whether they are a significant mortality fac- tor in nestling goshawks. maki et al. (1993) showed no effect of L. ziemanni on body mass or molting progress in almost 200 Tengmalm’s Owls Methods (,AegoliusJunereus) in Finland. They did, however, find that Nests of Northern Goshawks were studied from March four of six females which laid unusually small clutches had through late July 1994. Clutch sizes were determined by relatively heavy infections. In a second large study, Korpi- viewing nest contents in late April and early May 1994 with maki et al. (1995) found that mates ofmale European Kes- amirror attached to a telescopic pole. We climbed into nests trels (Falco tinnunculus) infectedwith Haemoproteusproduced between 11-14June to sex, band, weigh and measure wing smaller clutches earlier than mates of uninfected males. It lengths (standard B.T.O. maximum chord: Spencer 1984) of nesdings. Body mass was adjusted for crop contents by subtracting 60 g if nesdings had full crops and 15 g ifthey had crops that were half-full or less. Wing-length measure- 1 Present address: WWF-UK, Panda House, Weyside Park, ments were used to age nesdings (±4 d) from growth equa- Catteshall lane, Godaiming, Surrey GU7 1XR, UK. tions of Swedish goshawks (Kenward et al. 1993). The first . 82 Short Communications Vol. 31, No. 1 Table 1. Distribution of infections of Leucocytozoon toddi in nestling Northern Goshawks by brood size and sex. Brood Size Total 1 2 3 Nests # Infected broods 1 5 2 8 # Uninfected broods 4 6 5 15 # Infected males 1 3 0 4 # Infected females 0 2 3 5 egg-laying date, if not known from direct observations, was calculated by backdating from the age ofthe oldest nestling in a brood. The incubation period used was 38 d (36 d + 2d), as incubation does not start until at least the second Figure 1. Effect of Leucocytozoon toddi infection on egg is laid, two days after the first egg is laid (Cramp & growth of male and female nestling Northern Goshawks Simmons 1980). We are not aware of any instances of gos- in Wales in 1994. Males: Y= —805.9 + 1010.01og(x), fe- hawks removing unhatched eggs from their nests, so any males: Y= -1434.5 + 1632.81og(x). eggs that were unaccounted for, after thorough searches of nest material, were assumed to have hatched and the re- sulting young to have died. In late July, nesting territories eral, the mass of infected individuals of both sexes were were revisited to check for occupancy and fledgling mortal- ities.Juvenilmes were classified as having dispersed when they witThhienrreawngaessnoofaupnpianrfeecntteadssnoecsitaltiinogns b(Feitgw.e1e)n infections were >400 from the nesting territory and its immediate and brood size (Likelihood ratio test, x2 = 1-182, P > 2 vicinity. 0.05, Table 1), nor was there any apparent clustering of werBeloboadnsdaemdp.leTshiwserweastadkoenneatbtyheclsiapmpiengtitmheeastinpesotflitnhges Finofuerctmioanlsebnyesstelxinwgisthhbardoiondfescitzeio(nx2l2oa=ds6.o3f521, aPn>d 20.0a5n)d. talon on the inner toe. All nestlings were handled in the none had loads of 3. Conversely, only two female nest- same manner by the same observers. Blood smears were lings had infection loads of 1 and 2 and three had loads prepared in the field, immediately air-dried, fixed with ab- of 3. Although higher infection loads were higher in fe- lsaoblourtaetomreyt.hSalniodlesawnedrelaetxeramsitnaiendedunwditehr Gaimeimcsraossctoapine iannda maTlehsetmhiesawnasclnuotcthsisigznei,fibcraonotd(xsi2z2e=at5b.0a9n4d,inPg>an0d.0f5l)e.dg- the parasite load was estimated on a logarithmic scale of lings at dispersal in infected and uninfected broods were 0 to 4, where=0 = no parasites seen in the entire film similar (Table 2). The mortality of young goshawks up to examined; 1 few=er than 1 parasite per 100 high-power time of banding (>13 d) in infected broods (5 from 19 fields (X400); 2 1-10 parasites per 100 high-power broods) was not significantly higher than in uninfected = f4ie=ldsm;o3re t1h1a-n110000ppaarraassiitteessppeerr110000hhiigghh--ppoowweerredfieflidesl.ds; b0.r2o5o5d,sTa(b4lefr2)o.mPa2r8asbitreosodtsa;keFaisrhoeur’nsde1x4acdtto1-taapilpetaesrt,inPth=e blood (Pierce and Marquiss 1983), but infected nestlings Results and Discussion We examined the blood of 48 nestlings from 23 nests. Five female (26% of females) and four male (14% of Table 2. Productivity and survival ofNorthern Goshawk males) nestlings from eight nests were infected with Leu- eggs and nestlings in nests infected (N = 6) and unin- cocytozoon toddi (Table 1). One male was infected with a fected (N= 10) with the blood parasite Leucocytozoon toddi trypanosome, presumably Trypanosoma avium, but not in Wales in 1994. with L. toddi. The single trypanosome infection suggested that trypanosomes had a negligible impact on nestling mortality. In Britain, avian trypanosomes are also found Uninfected Infected in blackflies (Simulium sp.) and European Sparrowhawks Nests Nests (Pierce and Marquiss 1983, Dirie et al. 1990). (Number) (Number) The median date for first egg laying ofinfected broods (median =13 April, range = 7-9 April, N = 8) was sim- Eggs laid 33 22 ilar to that of uninfected broods (median = 9 April, Unhatched eggs 5 3 range = 31 March-18 April, N = 14; Mann-Whitney Nestlings hatching 28 19 U-test, U8 14 = 35.0, P > 0.05) suggesting parasite infec- Nestlings dying 4 5 tion and date of egg laying were not related. L. toddi in- Nestlings fledging 24 14 fections also did not appear to be associated with body Fledglings dying 1 0 mass or sex of nestlings, as male and female nestlings of Fledglings dispersing 23 14 differing body masses and ageswere infected and, in gen- March 1997 Short Communications 83 may be ill and possibly die during this prepatent period. Herman Ostroznik, Herman Ostroznik,Jr., Steve Binney Further studies involving a larger sample size are needed to and staffofa Forest Enterprise district for helpwith field- examine ifthere is a higher mortality ofyoung goshawks in work and logistics. We are also grateful to the British Eco- infected broods. If so, this might explain why only light in- logical Society (SEPG No. 1119) and the Liverpool fections were found since heavy infections, iftheyoccurred, School ofTropical Medicine for funding the project. would have resulted in death before 13 d of age. Literature Cited There was no association between infection and mor- tality in a brood between banding (13-39 d) and fledging Ashford, R.W., I. Wyllie and I. Newton. 1990. Leuco- as nestlings from both infected and uninfected broods cytozoon toddi in British Sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus. died (x2i = 0.166, P > 0.05). This suggested that infec- observations on the dynamics of infections. Nat. tions did not reduce the survival of nestlings past the J. Hist. 24:1091-1100. young nestling stage (>14 d). The geographic distribution and physical characteristics , E.E. Green, P.R. Holmes and AJ. Lucas. 1991. Leu- of nesting territories of infected goshawks were compared cocytozoon toddi in British Sparrowhawks Accipiternisus. pat- to those of uninfected goshawks (Mann-Whitney U-test). terns of infection in nestlings.J. Nat. Hist. 25:269-277. There were no statistically significant differences (P > 0.05) Bennet, G.F., M.A. Pierce and R.W. Ashford. 1993. Avi- between distances to nest trees in other nesting territories an haematozoa: mortality and pathogenicity. Nat. J. and running water, or between nesting territory elevations Hist. 27: 993-1001. of infected and uninfected goshawks. The distribution of Dirie, M.F., R.W. Ashford, L.M. Mungomba, D.H. Mo- infected nestlings within the study area did not suggest any lyneux and E.E. Green. 1990. Avian trypanosomes clustering. Physical characteristics of nesting territories of in Simulium and Sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus) Para- infected and uninfected territories were also similar. This ( . sitology 101:243-247. was not surprising because most nests were built in larch (Larixsp.) trees >25 yr old and larch was the mostcommon Kenward, R.E., M. Marquiss, and I. Newton. 1981. tree providing a suitable nesting substrate for goshawks. What happens to goshawks trained for falconry. J. Our results suggest that parasitic infections are likely to Wildl. Manage. 45:802-806. cause no short-term mortalities in goshawks in the post-dis- V. Marcstrom and M. Karlbom. 1993. Post-nest- , persal period. Infection loads were light compared with ling behaviour in Goshawks (Accipiter gentilis) I. The those of sparrowhawks (Ashford et al. 1990, 1991). cause of dispersal. Anim. Behav. 46:365—370, — Korpimaki, E., H. Hakkarainen and G.F. Bennet. 1993. Resumen. Nosotros encontramos nueve pajaritos de Ac- Blood parasites and reproductive success of Teng- cipiter gentilis (cinco hembras y cuatro machos) en ocho malm’s Owls: detrimental effects on females but not nidos de 48 pajaritos en 23 nidos en Wales que estaban on males. Fund. Ecol. 7:420-426. infectados con Leucocytozoon toddiy un macho que estaba , P. Tolonen and G.F. Bennet. 1995. Blood par- mfectado con Trypanosoma. Lamortalidad de los pajaritos asites, sexual selection and reproductive success of hasta el tiempo de ser marcados (>13 d) en crias infec- European Kestrels. Ecosdence 2:335—343. tados no fue considerablemente mas alto que en crias Marquiss, M. and I. Newton. 1982. The goshawk in que no estaban infectados, ni hubo ninguna asociacion Britain. Brit. Birds 75:243—260. entre infecciones y mortalidad en una cria entre los mar- Pierce, M.A. and M. Marquiss. 1983. Haematozoa ofBrit- cados (13-39 d) y los pajarosjovenes porque los pajaritos ish birds. VII. Haematozoa of raptors in Scotland with de los infectados y sin infeccion murieron. a description of Haemoproteus nissi sp. nov from the [Traduccion de Raul De La Garza,Jr.] Sparrowhawk (Acdpiter nisus) Nat. Hist. 17:813-821. J. . Spencer, R. 1984. The Ringer’s manual, 3rd ed. B.T.O., Acknowledgments UK Norfolk, We wish to thank the Countryside Council for Wales for the provision of the necessary licenses (SB:6:94) and Received 16 March 1996; accepted 30 November 1996