Black Power Encyclopedia Recent Titles in Movements of the American Mosaic Series Encyclopedia of Cesar Chavez: The Farm Workers’ Fight for Rights and Justice Roger Bruns Encyclopedia of the American Indian Movement Bruce E. Johansen The Civil Rights Movement: From Black Nationalism to the Women’s Political Council Peter B. Levy, Editor Black Power Encyclopedia From “Black Is Beautiful” to Urban Uprisings Volume 1: A–I Akinyele Umoja, Karin L. Stanford, and Jasmin A. Young, Editors Movements of the American Mosaic Copyright © 2018 by ABC-CLIO, LLC All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. Every reasonable effort has been made to trace the owners of copyright materials in this book, but in some instances this has proven impossible. The editors and publishers will be glad to receive information leading to more complete acknowledgments in subsequent printings of the book and in the meantime extend their apologies for any omissions. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Umoja, Akinyele Omowale, editor. | Stanford, Karin L., 1961- editor. | Young, Jasmin A., editor. Title: Black power encyclopedia : from “Black is beautiful” to urban uprisings / Akinyele Umoja, Karin L. Stanford, and Jasmin A. Young, editors. Description: Santa Barbara, California : Greenwood, an Imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC, 2018. | Series: Movements of the American mosaic | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2017045242 (print) | LCCN 2017046431 (ebook) | ISBN 9781440840074 (ebook) | ISBN 9781440840067 (set : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781440847776 (vol 1 : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781440847783 (vol 2 : alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Black power—United States—Encyclopedias. | African Americans—Politics and government—Encyclopedias. | Civil rights movements—United States—Encyclopedias. | United States— Race relations—Encyclopedias. Classification: LCC E185.615 (ebook) | LCC E185.615 .B546647 2018 (print) | DDC 323.1196/073—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017045242 ISBN: 978-1-4408-4006-7 (set) 978-1-4408-4777-6 (vol. 1) 978-1-4408-4778-3 (vol. 2) 978-1-4408-4007-4 (ebook) 22 21 20 19 18 1 2 3 4 5 This book is also available as an eBook. Greenwood An Imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC ABC-CLIO, LLC 130 Cremona Drive, P.O. Box 1911 Santa Barbara, California 93116-1911 www.abc-clio.com This book is printed on acid-free paper Manufactured in the United States of America Contents Introduction xi Chronology xxv Overview Essays Armed Resistance in the Black Power Movement xlv Black Power, Red Power, and the Potential of Red-Black Unity lxi Black Power Studies lxxv Gender, Black Women, and Black Power ci Urban Rebellions cix Entries Abubakari, Dara (Virginia Collins) (1915–2011) 1 African Liberation Support Committee 5 Afro Set Black Nationalist Party for Self-Defense (1967–1973) 11 Alabama Black Liberation Front 14 Ali, Muhammad (1942–2016) 18 All-African People’s Revolutionary Party 23 Assassinations 26 Attica Prison Rebellion 36 Baker, General Gordon, Jr. (1941–2014) 43 Bambara, Toni Cade (1939–1995) 52 Baraka, Amiri (LeRoi Jones) (1934–2014) 55 Black Aesthetic 76 v vi | Contents Black Arts Movement 78 Black Bookstores 85 Black Churches 93 Black Economic Union 99 Black Internationalism 102 “Black Is Beautiful” 108 Black Liberation Army 112 Black Marxism (Book) 117 Black Music 122 Black Panther Party 134 Black Power Abroad 143 Black Power Conferences 155 Black Prisoner Activism 157 Black Psychology 162 Black Student Activism 168 Black Student Alliance 176 Black Studies 180 Black United Front 185 Black Women’s Alliance/Third World Women’s Alliance (1970–1975) 189 Blaxploitation Films 194 Boggs, James (1919–1993) and Grace Lee (1915–2015) 199 Bond, Julian (1940–2015) 202 Bremond, Walter (1934–1982) 208 Brown, Elaine (1943–) 211 Brown, Hubert “H. Rap” (1943–) 214 Brown, James (1933–2006) 219 Carmichael, Stokely (Kwame Ture) (1941–1998) 223 Carter, Alprentice “Bunchy” (1942–1969) 248 Che Lumumba Club 251 Contents | vii Chisholm, Shirley (1924–2005) 256 Cleaver, Kathleen Neal (1945–) 260 Coltrane, John (1926–1967) 265 Combahee River Collective 270 Committee for Unified Newark (1968–1976) 275 Communist International and Black Power 278 Cone, James Hal (1938–) 282 Congress of African People (1970–1979) 286 Congress of Racial Equality 291 Council of Independent Black Institutions 295 Counterintelligence Program 297 Cuban Revolution (1953–1959) 303 Cultural Nationalism 307 Davis, Angela Yvonne (1944–) 315 Deacons for Defense and Justice 319 Douglas, Emory (1943–) 322 Edwards, Harry (1942–) 325 Electoral Politics and Black Power 328 Fanon, Frantz (1925–1961) 333 Forman, James (1928–2005) 336 Fuller, Hoyt (1923–1981) 340 Garvin, Victoria “Vicki” Ama (1915–2007) 343 Giovanni, Nikki (1943–) 347 Group on Advanced Leadership (1961–1965) 349 Hampton, Fred, Sr. (1948–1969) 353 Hare, Nathan (1933–) 355 Hatcher, Richard (1933–) 358 House of Umoja 376 Institute of the Black World 383 viii | Contents Jackson, George L. (1941–1971) 387 Jackson, Jesse L., Sr. (1941–) 392 Jackson, Maynard Holbrook (1938–2003) 399 Jackson State Massacre (May 14, 1970) 402 Johnson, Nelson (1943–) 406 Karenga, Maulana (1941–) 411 Kawaida 418 Kennedy, Florynce “Flo” (1916–2000) 424 King, Martin Luther, Jr. (1929–1968) 428 Kiswahili 434 Kochiyama, Yuri (1921–2014) 438 Koen, Charles E., Jr. (1945–) 441 Kwanzaa 444 Kwayana, Tchaiko (1937–2017) 449 Last Poets 457 League of Revolutionary Black Workers 459 Lowndes County Freedom Organization 463 Lumumba, Chokwe (1947–2014) 467 Madhubuti, Haki (Don L. Lee) (1942–) 471 Malcolm X (1925–1965) 473 Malcolm X Liberation University 485 Mallory, Mae (1927–2007) 493 Mao Zedong (1893–1976) 496 March Against Fear 501 McKissick, Floyd B., Sr. (1922–1991) 509 Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party 519 Moore, Carlos (1942–) 529 Moore, “Queen Mother” Audley (1898–1997) 532 National Black Economic Development Conference and the Black Manifesto 537 Contents | ix National Black Feminist Organization 541 National Black Political Assembly 545 National Black United Fund, Inc. 548 National Conference of Black Lawyers 553 National Welfare Rights Organization 556 Nation of Islam 560 Neal, Larry (1937–1981) 565 Newton, Huey P. (1942–1989) 568 Obadele, Gaidi (Milton Henry) (1919–2006) 577 Obadele, Imari A. (Richard Henry) (1930–2010) 584 Ocean Hill–Brownsville Campaign for Community Control of Schools 587 Olympic Project for Human Rights 590 Operation Breadbasket 595 Pan-Africanism 599 Parks, Rosa (1913–2005) 603 Police Brutality 607 Political Prisoners and Exiles 626 Political Prisoners of the Black Power Movement 634 Powell, Adam Clayton, Jr. (1908–1972) 636 Pratt, Geronimo ji-Jaga (1947–2011) 640 Provisional Government of the Republic of New Africa 643 Publications 647 Religion and Black Power 661 Reparations 664 Revolutionary Action Movement 670 Revolutionary Nationalism 675 Richardson, Gloria (1922–) 679 Ricks, Willie (1943–) 684 Rodney, Walter (1942–1980) 687 Sadaukai, Owusu (Howard Fuller) (1941–) 695