193 The Project Gutenberg EBook of Birds and Nature, Vol. 12 No. 5 [December 1902], by Various This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. Title: Birds and Nature, Vol. 12 No. 5 [December 1902] Illustrated by Color Photography Author: Various Editor: William Kerr Higley Release Date: January 6, 2015 [EBook #47885] Language: English Character set encoding: UTF-8 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BIRDS AND NATURE, DECEMBER 1902 *** Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, Stephen Hutcheson, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net Birds and Nature, Volume XII Number 5 DECEMBER. THE HOODED ORIOLE. (Icterus cucullatus.) THE ORIOLE’S MISSION. THE CLOTHES MOTH AND ITS METHODS. INCIDENTS ABOUT BIRDS. THE CHUCK-WILL’S-WIDOW. (Antrostomus carolinensis.) AN AMATEUR CIRCUS. A True Story. THE GRAY-CROWNED LEUCOSTICTE. (Leucosticte tephrocotis.) CORUNDUM AND SPINEL. THE WHITE-CROWNED SPARROW. (Zonotrichia leucophrys.) AFTER THE SNOW STORM. THE FEATHERED FISHERMAN. A WINTER-PIECE AMONG THE PENTLANDS. THE CARNATION. WINTER SONG. BUDS OF PROMISE. COLD WEATHER NOTES FROM NATURE. HOW A CAT SAVED THE LIFE OF A CANARY. THE POCKET RATS. WINTER VISITORS. BEAUTIFUL VINES TO BE FOUND IN OUR WILD WOODS III. THE PERSIMMON. (Diospyros virginiana.) AS TO ALLIGATORS. DANDELION. (Taraxacum taraxacum Karst.) FROM SPRING TO RIVULET. INDEX. Volume XII—June, 1902, to December, 1902, inclusive. 194 BIRDS AND NATURE. ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. Vol. XII. DECEMBER, 1902. No. 5. CONTENTS. 193 194 197 197 198 201 202 204 207 213 214 215 215 216 219 220 222 225 226 227 228 231 235 236 237 DECEMBER. When the feud of hot and cold Leaves the autumn woodlands bare; When the year is getting old, And flowers are dead, and keen the air; When the crow has new concern, And early sounds his raucous note; And—where the late witch-hazels burn— The squirrel from a chuckling throat Tells that one larder’s space is filled, And tilts upon a towering tree; And, valiant, quick, and keenly thrilled, Upstarts the tiny chickadee; When the sun’s still shortening arc Too soon night’s shadows dun and gray Brings on, and fields are drear and dark, And summer birds have flown away,— I feel the year’s slow-beating heart, The sky’s chill prophecy I know; And welcome the consummate art Which weaves this spotless shroud of snow! —Joel Benton, in “Songs of Nature.” THE HOODED ORIOLE. (Icterus cucullatus.) 197 Only a very limited portion of the United States is beautified by the presence of the bright colored Hooded Oriole. The North has the richly plumaged Baltimore oriole for a short time each year, but only the far southeastern part of Texas is enlivened by this graceful, active bird of our illustration, which is “so full of song that the woods are filled with music all the day.” Both of these birds seem hardly to belong to the North, where somber colors seem more in harmony with a severer climate. The Hooded Oriole does not attempt the journey and when we see the Baltimore, “A winged flame that darts and burns, Dazzling where’er his bright wing turns,” in our northern woods we cannot but ask, with the poet, “How falls it, Oriole, thou hast come to fly In tropic splendor through our northern sky? At some glad moment was it Nature’s choice To dower a scrap of sunset with a voice?” The Hooded Oriole has a very narrow range, reaching from Texas southward through eastern Mexico to Honduras, and during our northern winters it has the Baltimore as an associate. It is a social bird and frequents the home of man. One writer relating his experience with this Oriole says: “They were continually appearing about the thatched roof of our houses and the arbors adjoining for insects; they were more familiar than any of the other Orioles about the ranch.” It not only delights man by its song and beautiful coloring, but its presence is also beneficial, for it destroys countless adult insects and their larvæ. The Hooded Oriole seldom builds its nest higher than from six to twelve feet above the ground, though in a few instances it has been found as high as thirty feet. Dr. James C. Merrill, in his Notes on the Ornithology of Texas, says, “The nests of this bird found here are perfectly characteristic, and cannot be confounded with those of any allied species. They are usually found in one of the two following situations: The first and most frequent is in a bunch of hanging moss, usually at no great height from the ground; when so placed the nests are formed almost entirely by hollowing out and matting the moss, with a few filaments of a dark, hairlike moss as a lining. The second situation is in a bush growing to a height of about six feet, a nearly bare stem, throwing out two or three irregular masses of leaves at the top. These bunches of dark green leaves conceal the nest admirably. It is constructed of filaments of the hair-like mass just referred to, with a little Spanish moss, wool, or a few feathers for the lining. They are rather wide and shallow for orioles’ nests, and though strong they appear thin and delicate.” Not infrequently the Hooded Oriole builds its nest in plants called the Spanish bayonet or yucca. In such a situation the walls are constructed almost entirely of the fibers of the plant torn from dried leaves. These fibers are tough and the nest walls are much more durable than when made with moss. Wool or vegetable down may be used as a lining, but it is not uncommon to find no lining. The Hooded Oriole is not free from the intrusion of feathered rascals. Major Bendire says that it “is considerably imposed upon by both the red-eyed and the dwarf cow-birds, and in a few instances parasitic eggs of both species are found in the same nest.” HOODED ORIOLE. (Icterus cucullatus). ⅔ Life-size. FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES. THE ORIOLE’S MISSION. Sweet little bird on yonder tree, 198 Fly to the town with song of glee And comfort there some lonely soul, Thou sweetest, dearest oriole! Perch on an open window sill, And then pour forth thy mellowest trill. What griefs thy carol will console, Thou sweetest, dearest oriole! A tale of hope to each sad heart Thy notes of love will soon impart; And in their memory will roll The sweet strain of the oriole. —Christine B. Moray. THE CLOTHES MOTH AND ITS METHODS. Though it has incurred the bitter condemnation of all housewives, the clothes moth is quite an interesting little body from the naturalist’s point of view. The species known in the United States bears the long name Pellionella. Its larva constructs a case for its occupancy. The moths themselves are very small and well fitted for making their way through minute holes and chinks. The mother insect deposits her eggs in or near such material as will be best adapted for food for the young. Further, she distributes them so that there may be a plentiful supply and enough room for each. When one of the scattered family issues from the egg its first care is to provide itself with a home, or more correctly speaking, a dress. Having decided upon a proper site it cuts out a filament of cloth and places it on a line with its body. Another is cut and placed parallel with the first. The two are then bound together by a few threads of silk from the caterpillar’s own body. The same process is repeated with other hairs until the little creature has made a fabric of some thickness. This it extends until it is large enough to cover its whole body. It chooses the longer threads for the outside and finishes the inner side by a closely woven tapestry of silk. The dress being complete, the larva begins to feed on the material of the cloth. When it outgrows its clothes, which happens in the course of time, it proceeds to enlarge them. With the dexterity of a tailor it slits the coat, or case, on the two opposite sides, and inserts two pieces of the requisite size. All this is managed without the least exposure of its body. Neither side being slit all at once. Concealed in its movable silk lined roll it spends the summer plying its sharp reaping hooks amid the harvest of tapestry. In the fall it ceases to eat, fixes its habitation, and lies torpid during the winter. With the early spring it changes to a chrysalis within its case, and in about twenty days thereafter it emerges as a winged moth, which flies about in the evening until it has found a mate and is ready to lay eggs. Louise Jamison. INCIDENTS ABOUT BIRDS. There is much to be learned about the habits of birds, even in a casual observation of them as we meet them from time to time. It is well known that the English sparrow is not friendly toward other birds, often driving them from their nests and even going so far as to destroy both these and their young. Upon one occasion a sparrow took possession of the partially completed nest of a pair of martins, in process of construction, beneath the eaves of a farmhouse. When the martins returned with their load of mud for its walls, the sparrow, intrenched within, drove them away with scolding cries and fluttering wings, resisting all their attempts at dislodging him. Time after time the attack was renewed, all to no avail. There he was and there he proposed to remain. But the plucky martins were not so easily vanquished. They retired for a season, only to renew the attack with increased vigor, waging a battle long and fierce. Finally, however, they seemed to understand that their enemy had the better of them, and bent their energies toward vengeance. Carrying mud in their beaks, they built a wall about the sparrow as he sat in possession of their home, surrounding him so completely that he was made a prisoner in the very place where he had taken forcible possession. And there they left him to his fate. A pair of robins selected a nesting place in the fork of a maple, standing quite near a house, the chamber windows of which looked down directly into it. No sooner had they begun to carry sticks for the foundation, than a pair of crow black birds, with malicious intent, pounced upon it and scattered the sticks in every direction, taking advantage of the absence of the owners of the nest to carry out their mischief. Time after time did the robins repair the damage and begin afresh their work of construction. No sooner were they out of sight than the black birds tore the material out of the tree, seemingly working in great haste to complete their depredation before the robins’ return. Stormy encounters, amounting to pitched battles sometimes, ensued when the marauders were caught by the irate home makers in the very act of tearing to fragments the work they were toiling so painfully to complete. Not one day only, but several elapsed, and still the battle continued, the interested spectators though sympathetic were powerless to help the rightful owners of the home. The black birds seemingly did not want the nest for themselves. They merely objected to the robins building there. At last, to the great relief of the red-breasts, their enemies gave up the fight and allowed them to build the nest. This they did, laying their eggs and rearing their young without further annoyance. Many a fat angle worm does the robin get in the spring of the year, pulling them out of the ground where the bright eyes spy them close to the surface, or partly protruding therefrom. A full-grown robin has been seen to thus capture and swallow a round dozen of earth worms inside of ten minutes. One day a fledgling was hopping across the lawn, the mother bird alert and watchful, not far away. She had been feeding it, but evidently its hunger had not yet been appeased, for it hopped to her side and began to make the coaxing noise heard when in the nest as the parent approaches with food. The mother bird paused a moment, looked about her, then hopping to one side a short distance, she planted her feet squarely upon the ground, caught one end of a worm in her beak and commenced to pull. The worm, which was a large one, was not easily dislodged and tug as hard as she could, she could not complete her capture. Evidently the worm was too long. She fairly tipped over backward in her effort, yet without avail. All at once, and as quick as a flash, so as to give it no chance to get away, she let go her hold and seizing the worm farther down, drew it triumphantly forth and gave it to her expectant offspring. 201 202 E. E. Rockwood. CHUCK-WILL’S-WIDOW. (Antrostomus carolinensis). ⅗ Life-size. FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES. THE CHUCK-WILL’S-WIDOW. (Antrostomus carolinensis.) In the wooded ravines and timbered swamps of the southern states, the Chuck-will’s-widow tells of its presence by frequently calling its own name. It, with the whip- poor-will and the night hawk, belongs to the family of goatsuckers and is closely related to the swifts. The family includes about eighty-five species of these peculiar birds, nearly all being natives of the tropics, though nearly every part of the world has representatives. The range of the Chuck-will’s-widow is quite limited. It includes the states from Virginia and southern Illinois southward to the Gulf of Mexico, and through Mexico into Central America. It is also found in Cuba. Chuck-will’s-widow is a bird of the twilight and night hours. Silent during the daylight hours, its penetrating voice, which is remarkably strong, may be continuously heard in the regions that it inhabits during the evening hours and for a time preceding the returning light of day. It is said that on a still evening its call may be heard for more than one mile. In its large eyes and head, its loose and somber colored plumage, its quiet flight and nocturnal habits it resembles the owls. Its short bill and the shape of the wings, permitting rapid flight, give it a close relationship to the swifts. Its mouth is peculiarly fitted for the capture of insects. The gape is enormous, and when the mouth is fully open, will measure nearly two inches from side to side. It is also aided in ensnaring insects by the long, bristle-like whiskers at the base of the mouth. It will catch and swallow the largest of the night-flying moths, and though it seems almost incredible small birds not infrequently form a part of its diet. An observer found in the stomach of one “among an indistinguishable mass of brownish matter, a small bone, about half an inch long.” In another stomach he found the remains of a hummingbird only partially digested and well enough preserved for him to identify the species. Dr. F. W. Langdon states that he examined the stomach of a female Chuck-will’s-widow that “contained the partially digested body, entire, of a swamp sparrow, intermingled with the feathers of which were numerous remains of insects, chiefly small beetles.” While hunting for food the Chuck-will’s-widow flies low, often but a few feet above the surface of the ground. In this habit it differs from the night-hawk, which, like the swifts, seeks its food high in the air. Now and then it rests, perching on old logs or fences, from which it will launch forth in pursuit of prey which its keen eyes have sighted. During the day it roosts in hollow trees or upon a large limb in some densely shaded spot. It does not attempt to build a nest. The two dull white eggs are laid upon the ground or upon leaves in some secluded place in woods or thickets. It is said that this bird, when disturbed at its nest, will remove either its eggs or the young, as the case may be, to a place of safety by carrying them in its mouth. Mr. Audubon relates the following incident which came under his observation: “When the Chuck-will’s-widow, either male or female (for each sits alternately), has discovered that the eggs have been touched, it ruffles its feathers and appears extremely dejected for a minute or two, after which it emits a low, murmuring cry, scarcely audible to me as I lay concealed at a distance not more than eighteen or twenty yards. At this time I had seen the other parent reach the spot, flying so low over the ground that I thought its little feet must have touched it as it skimmed along, and after a few low notes and some gesticulations, all indicative of great distress, take an egg in its large mouth, the other bird doing the same, when they would fly off together, skimming closely over the ground, until they disappeared among the branches and trees.” Because of its night-flying habit, its somber colors and its peculiar penetrating notes the Chuck-will’s-widow, as well as the whip-poor-will, was considered by the Indians a bird of ill omen. AN AMATEUR CIRCUS. A True Story. We were not like ordinary children—in fact as I look back on our younger days it comes to me ever more strongly how very unlike we were. There was Harvey, my older brother, who never did anything that other children did and was always perpetrating some most extraordinary thing which certainly no one else ever would have 203 204 thought of. However, in spite of this trait, or possibly in consequence of it, he afterwards became famous. But that is neither here nor there—we were all what the neighbors termed “unexpected,” if they were kindly disposed, otherwise it was some word to the same effect though less mild. It was always a great blessing to us and one which we received with thankful hearts, that our father was a man of science, and his line of work made him the recipient of a varied assortment of animals which he would bring home alive and keep until he was ready to work upon them. It was only natural that we children should become fond of these creatures and beg that they might be spared the eternal sleep and left to us to play with. This was often granted. So it happened at one time that we were the proud possessors of twenty-five different kinds of birds, animals and reptiles and the envy of all the children for blocks around. It is so long now since the time of which I write that I may not be able to recall them all, but I give them as I remember them and by their rank—for they had rank as well as names, the highest in intelligence always going first—as they did at our funerals; for when any one of the little colony died we would give it a burial in accordance with its station in life. First beside the grave would stand Rex, my beautiful dog, whose knowledge was so great it seemed almost human; then would come “Daisy,” Harvey’s little Mexican pony; then “Lorita,” the parrot, whose intelligence was really remarkable; after her came “Jackie,” the monkey, and so on down. The cat, the crow, with his one white tail feather; then the smaller birds; two love-birds, a brown thrush, a blue jay and the canary. Three baby foxes followed the birds and then came the squirrels, gray, red, and flying squirrels; next to these stood the rabbits, a dozen or more of all kinds and colors: Belgian hares, pure yellows, angoras, whites and blacks, they came, a motley crew. The weasel and muskrat were next, and now the reptiles were beginning; the turtles, a hellbender and the snakes; black snakes, garter snakes, green snakes, a puffing adder and last of all came two boa constrictors. I have reserved a special place for my own dear, stupid, little hedge hog, Billy. It used to grieve me to always see poor Billy straggling off at the end of the animals— ahead of the reptiles, to be sure—a pathetic little figure of stupidity, but Harvey insisted he deserved no better place. Possibly it was because he seemed so lonely and despised by the others, but at any rate, Billy was an especial pet of mine, and in order to disprove Harvey’s statement that, “it was impossible to teach it anything,” I spent much time and pains on Billy, and at last succeeded in teaching him to utter a little grunt when I would scratch his back and ask, “Want your supper, Billy?” But the thing that made me the proudest was when he at last could go up stairs. It was nearly three years before Billy could accomplish the entire flight, and even then it was a long and weary pilgrimage; but the patience I had expended upon him had not been in vain. It was comical to watch his efforts—the little short forelegs trying to reach up to the next stair, where he knew a lump of sugar would be his reward. But I am digressing. One day father and mother having gone out of town to a funeral, we children were left to ourselves. It was an opportunity not to be neglected, and our brains were at work trying to plan some new game, when Harvey arrived in our midst triumphantly waving a huge sheet of paper—a “bill-poster” he called it—upon which, in large letters, were the headlines, “Grand Circus,” and then followed an account of the animals that would take part and the tricks they would perform. Harvey assigned us our posts—he himself being ring-master, by right of his seniority and having thought of the game. Alice was the “fat lady,” while I, Paul, being the youngest, was nothing but a “feeder of animals” and tent shifter. Under the direction of the Circus Master we assembled the menagerie in cages, or loose as the case might be, up in Mother’s bed-room. It took a good deal of time to get them all together. Polly was of a roving disposition and had to be coaxed down from the top of a tall tree, where she had perched, a square or so away; the crow was up on the roof; the rabbits and hares were scampering all over the garden—in fact, nothing but the caged animals seemed to be at hand. But the task was finally accomplished and all were ranged around the room waiting for Harvey, who had disappeared mysteriously some little time before. Suddenly there was a most terrific clatter and noise, coming ever nearer and nearer. We looked at each other open-mouthed with surprise, when, with a flourish of lariat and a wild Indian war-whoop, that rose above the deafening noise, in dashed Harvey upon “Daisy,” a triumphant figure—having accomplished the difficult feat of making the pony carry him up stairs. He dismounted with a jump. “Ladies and Gentlemen,” he began, “the first act on the programme will be by this wonderful horse— Daisy, down on your haunches!” The lariat swept the air in true ring-master fashion, and Daisy obediently sat back on her haunches. “Shake hands, Daisy.” The hoof came up—but here Rex interfered. He realized the pony had no business there and felt the responsibility which rested upon him. Good dog that he was, he started toward her, barking sharply, as though to say, “Go away—you know you have no business here.” Then, as if his bark had been a signal, all the other animals lifted up their voices, and for a while it was pandemonium let loose—screeches from Polly, calls of “Mamma” from the crow (which it could say as plainly as any parrot, though its tongue had never been slit), grunts and squeals mingled in utter confusion. In the midst of it all who should walk in but Uncle Charles. Now, we all knew that Uncle was not disposed to pass over lightly even the least of our offenses, and what he would say, and what was more, do now, we dared not think. But Harvey was equal to the occasion. He knew Uncle’s weak point, and went towards him nonchalantly swinging the snakes who stuck out their heads as they swayed back and forth. Now, to us children the snakes were just as nice and pretty as any of the animals, but they were quite the opposite to Uncle Charles. The great, writhing things, swaying to and fro as they twisted in Harvey’s hands and stuck out their heads, in which the eyes dully gleamed, filled him with loathing and disgust, not unmixed with terror. All that Uncle Charles had meant to say vanished from his mind as he saw Harvey advancing upon him with the boa-constrictors, and he began to retreat more and more rapidly, but with ever decreasing dignity. Harvey still pursued. “Why, Uncle,” we heard him say, “what’s the matter?” There was no response—Uncle Charles had gone home. But the circus was broken up. I think it is better to draw a veil over the consequences of our circus. No circus is complete without a side-show—and ours was no exception. We never had another one—at least not in mother’s room. Paul Brenton Eliot. THE GRAY-CROWNED LEUCOSTICTE. (Leucosticte tephrocotis.) The Gray-crowned Leucosticte or Gray-crowned Rosy Finch, as it is often called, is a resident of the interior of British America during the warmer months. In the winter it passes southward, frequenting the Rocky Mountain region of the United States, where it is quite common on the eastern slopes. So far as known, within the border of the United States, it only nests in the Sierra Nevada in California. While on the slopes of the mountains this Finch is usually seen in flocks. During the most severe weather it will frequent settled districts, becoming quite tame, and it has been known to seek the sheltering cover of the nests of cliff swallows under the eaves of 207 buildings. When in the fields it is a restless bird and quite shy. Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, while stationed at Fort Fetterman, Wyoming, had an excellent opportunity to study the habits of this handsome bird. He captured eight, including both males and females, which he placed in a cage especially prepared for them. “In a few days they not only became accustomed to their quarters, but apparently thoroughly satisfied and happy. Flocks of their companions passing over were certain to be called down, to alight on the fences, the ground, and in fact, everything in the neighborhood of the cage, to even the cage itself.” The birds were given canary and flax seeds, cracked wheat and finally lettuce and other tender leaves, all of which they seemed to relish. Dr. Shufeldt also says: “Every morning, as I approached the cage, a general and impatient chattering commenced for their breakfast and bath, and they immediately availed themselves of both in my presence. Often I deluged the entire cage, birds and all, with a large watering pot, and they enjoyed the sprinkling immensely. Later in the spring this part of the programme was followed by their pluming themselves in the sun, chattering among themselves and the males giving utterance to a low, subdued and plaintive sort of song, being different from the shrill whistle they gave to attract the attention of their passing fellows outside.” By the middle of May all the birds of this species had left the vicinity for their breeding grounds further north. Dr. Shufeldt’s captives did not even pair and early in July he released them. Their plumage seemed to be at its best in the early part of May. Another authority, speaking of this bird’s habits in the mountain regions, says, “During summer and autumn the Gray-crowned Finch is common above timber line, where it breeds, ranging higher than the titlark and being usually found in the vicinity of snow fields and the frozen lakes near the summit of the range. It is rather shy in such localities, though exceedingly tame in winter. Its flight is in undulating lines, like the crossbills. The only note I have heard it utter is a kind of churr, like the call of the scarlet tanager. They stay above timber-line till the close of October or the middle of November. They are perpetually roving from place to place feeding upon the seeds of weeds and grasses and are never at rest for a moment at a time, constantly whirling about in close, dense masses, like so many longspurs.” GRAY-CROWNED LEUCOSTICTE. (Leucosticte tephrocotis). Life-size. FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES. CORUNDUM AND SPINEL. CORUNDUM. The mineral species Corundum affords a number of gems known by different names. These differences arise from the fact that the stones were used as gems before their mineralogical identity was discovered. Thus red Corundum is known as the ruby and blue Corundum as the sapphire. When Corundum suitable for gem purposes occurs of other colors, such as green, yellow or violet, the gems are sometimes known as green, yellow or violet sapphires, respectively, or by the name of another gem which they closely resemble in color, with the adjective Oriental prefixed. Such are the gems known as Oriental topaz, Oriental emerald, Oriental aquamarine, Oriental hyacinth, Oriental amethyst and Oriental chrysolite. Colorless Corundum is known as leucosapphire. While Corundum of all colors is used for gems, it is only that which is transparent which can be so employed. This is sometimes called noble Corundum to distinguish it from common Corundum. The two, however, often occur together. Common Corundum is used as an abrasive, emery being one of its varieties, but it has no gem value. Corundum is a sesquioxide of aluminum, with the percentages aluminum 53.2, oxygen 46.8. Its hardness is 9 in the scale of which diamond is 10, and no other mineral except the latter equals it in hardness. This hardness gives it a wearing quality as a gem second only to the diamond. The varieties of Corundum differ slightly in hardness, sapphire being the hardest. Noble Corundum has a brilliant, vitreous luster, which, while not equal to that of the diamond, is superior to that exhibited by almost any other gem. Corundum is a heavy mineral, its specific gravity being four times that of water. This high specific gravity affords an easy means of distinguishing 208 209 the gems of Corundum from those of other species. Corundum is infusible and is not attacked by acids. It crystallizes in the rhombohedral division of the hexagonal system, certain crystal forms being characteristic of the two varieties, ruby and sapphire. Thus ruby tends to crystallize in flat rhombohedral crystals, while sapphire generally forms in longer, hexagonal prisms. (See colored plate in November number.) Corundum is doubly refracting and dichroic. Of the different colors of Corundum above referred to, the blue or sapphire is most common, the red or ruby next. The other colors occur rather sparingly, green having been almost unknown until the discovery of the Montana sapphires. The nature of the coloring ingredient of the different varieties of Corundum is not known, but there is some reason for believing it to be chromium, for Fremy obtained artificial red and blue Corundum by mixing chromium with his other ingredients, after many attempts to obtain the desired color had failed. Red Corundum varies in hue from rose to deep red. That of the latter tint is the true ruby, the color known as pigeon’s blood being most highly prized. Faultless stones of this color have long been the most valuable of gems, exceeding the diamond in price, weight for weight, unless the latter is colored. Rubies above three carats in weight are about ten times more valuable than ordinary diamonds of the corresponding weights. But few rubies exceeding ten carats are known. The King of Pegu is reported to have one the size of a hen’s egg, but as no one has ever seen it the story may well be doubted. In the crown of the Empress Catherine was, however, one the size of a pigeon’s egg. There is also a large uncut ruby in the British crown, which Ruskin calls the loveliest precious stone of which he has any knowledge. The chief home of the ruby is Burmah. From its mines and those of Siam and Ceylon have come practically all the world’s supply of rubies. The most important Burmese mines are in Mogouk, ninety miles north of Mandalay. The rubies were evidently formed in limestone, which is now much decomposed, and seem to have been the result of metamorphism of the limestone by the entrance of eruptive rocks. The ruby-bearing earth is known as “byon,” and the stones are obtained from it by washing. The rubies are usually in the form of more or less complete crystals. The mines have been worked since the British occupation of Burmah in 1886 by a British company, and there can be little doubt that a desire to acquire these mines was the chief reason for the occupation. The mines have not proved very profitable, however, and only within the last year or two has the company been able to pay any dividends. The hope of success has lain in the introduction of machinery for washing the byon more cheaply than it could be done by the primitive native methods, and it is now believed by the introduction of an electrical power plant that this has been accomplished. This company now produces at least one-half the annual yield of rubies of the world. Previous to the English working of the mines the ruby mining was performed by local miners under control of the native government, all rubies above a certain size going to the king. Whenever a ruby of unusual size was found a procession of grandees, with soldiers and elephants, was sent out to meet it. One of the titles of the King of Burmah was Lord of the Rubies. The Siamese rubies come from near Bangkok, on the Gulf of Siam. They occur in a clay which seems to be the product of alteration of a besalt. These rubies are not equal in quality to those of Burmah. Rubies are also found in the gem gravels of Ceylon and in Afghanistan, thirty-two miles east of Cabul. In our own country ruby Corundum is occasionally found in connection with opaque Corundum in Macon County, North Carolina. In the gravels of Caler Fork of Cowee Creek of this county good rubies are found in sufficient quantity to reward systematic mining for them. These rubies are mostly small, but some gems of three or four carats’ weight and of excellent color have been obtained. Among the Montana sapphires an occasional red stone is found, but they do not have the choicest red color. Another source of rubies is their artificial production, after the method discovered by the French chemist Fremy. These are made by heating a mixture of aluminum sesquioxide, carbonate of lime, barium fluoride and potassium chromate in a porous clay crucible to a temperature of 1500 degrees C. and keeping the mixture fluid for eight days. Well-formed, clear crystals up to one-third of a carat in weight are thus produced, which have the hardness and color of native ruby. They are not considered so valuable as gems as the latter, and can be distinguished by the air bubbles which may be seen with a lens. The expense of making them is nearly equal to the value of native rubies, so that their production is likely to be limited. Rubies were known to the ancients, being mentioned in the Bible in Proverbs and Job. The Greeks and Romans ascribed to the ruby the power of giving light in the dark, and the Hindoos describe the abodes of their gods as thus lighted. The ruby was much worn as an amulet, being supposed to protect the wearer against plague, poison and evil spirits. It was also thought that it would turn dark if its owner were in danger and would not regain its color until the peril was over. The ruby is usually cut in the form of the brilliant, like the diamond, but sometimes the step cut is advantageously employed. The stones from India are usually rounded by the native gem cutters and worn in this manner. Blue precious Corundum or sapphire is more abundant than the red or ruby. Like the red the blue color seems to be due to a content of chromium, since in the artificial crystals already mentioned as produced by Fremy, both colors occur at times in the same crystal. The blue color, however, unlike the reds, disappears on heating. Blue Corundum exhibits various shades from light to dark, the color most highly prized being that known as cornflower blue. A good sapphire should also have high luster and a velvety sheen. As already noted, sapphire is somewhat harder than ruby, and it is also somewhat heavier. The Montana sapphires are said to be especially hard. Sapphires have at the present time not over half the value of a ruby of the same size. A price of forty dollars per carat is an average one for a stone of not over ten carats and, as much larger stones are comparatively common, the price does not increase so rapidly as does that of the ruby with an increase in size. The world’s supply of sapphires comes chiefly from Siam. The most important mines of that country are those of Battambong, a city southeast of Bangkok. The sapphires occur in a sandy clay out of which they are washed. The sapphire-bearing region is about a hundred miles in length. Together with the sapphires occur some rubies, especially in the southern part of the district. Sapphires also occur among the rubies of Burmah, but in small numbers. The so-called gem gravels of Ceylon furnish many sapphires, though their quality is not equal to those of Siam because of paleness of color. In these gem gravels occur also ruby, spinel, garnet, topaz, amethyst, tourmaline and hyacinth. Another locality for sapphires, discovered in the early eighties, is Banskar, in Cashmere, India. These stones were first disclosed by the fall of an avalanche, and later were discovered to exist in the region in considerable numbers. For a time they could be cheaply purchased, but are now jealously guarded by the government. The Montana sapphires have been known since 1865, but were not systematically worked until 1891. They occur in river sands east of Helena, and were first obtained in washing for gold. Now the mother rock has been discovered, and this is mined, the rock being taken out, piled in heaps and submitted to the action of frost through the winter. The sapphires thus become loosened and can be readily separated. These sapphires are well crystallized and are of good average size, though few gems exceed six carats in weight. Their luster and color are for the most part of first quality, and the stones are in demand for the best of jewelry. Noble Corundum of other colors than those of blue and red is not of abundant occurrence nor is it ordinarily as highly prized as are the sapphire and ruby. Colorless sapphire or leucosapphire is sometimes used as a substitute for the diamond, from which it can readily be distinguished by its lower hardness and higher specific gravity. Certain specimens of both sapphire and ruby, but especially the former, exhibit when lighted a six-rayed star. This appears as beams of light, radiating from a center, which changes in position as the stone is turned. Such stones are called star or asteriated sapphires or rubies, and are highly prized. They are usually cut with rounded surface, as this best brings out the figure. The cause of the star-shaped figure is generally supposed to be the presence of countless microscopic cavities in the stone, which are arranged parallel to the faces of a six-sided prism. The total reflection of the light from these causes the star. Others think that multitudes of twining lamellæ cause the appearance. Sapphire is a word which is the same in nearly all languages. In Chaldean, Hebrew, Greek and Latin it has the same form as in modern tongues. This fact testifies to the 210 ancient use of the stone. In early times sapphire was believed to be a destroyer of poison, so that if put into a glass with a spider or venomous reptile it would kill it. It was regarded also as a remedy against fevers. SPINEL. The group of Spinel includes in mineralogy a number of species of different though analogous composition. The Spinel employed as a gem is almost wholly confined to the magnesium aluminate, having the percentage composition alumina 71.8 and magnesia 28.2. This is usually of a red color, different shades giving gems known by different names as follows: Deep red, spinel-ruby; rose-red, Balas ruby; yellow- or orange-red, rubicelle; violet red, almandine ruby. Spinel is thus known among gems chiefly as a relative of the ruby, and this sort of Spinel will first be considered. The Spinel rubies differ from the true or corundum rubies in hardness, specific gravity and system of crystallization. The hardness of Spinel is 8, or about that of topaz, and the specific gravity 3.6. It is thus neither as hard nor as heavy as corundum ruby. Again, the system of crystallization differs. Spinel crystallizes in the isometric system and is usually found in the form, of octahedrons, while corundum ruby is hexagonal in crystallization. (See colored plate in November number.) Spinel is singly refracting in polarized light and corundum doubly refracting. Spinel ruby is infusible before the blowpipe, but on heating undergoes a curious series of changes in color which are quite characteristic. The red changes first to brown, and then becomes black and opaque, but on cooling the black changes to green, then becomes nearly colorless and finally the stone resumes its original red color. As a small percentage of chromium is usually found by analysis to exist in ruby Spinel, its color is generally considered to be due to this ingredient. While the Spinel ruby is considered of less value than the corundum ruby and is sometimes by fraud or error substituted for the latter, it yet has a definite value as a gem and is sold under the name of Spinel ruby or some of its varieties. This value is usually reckoned at about half that of the corundum ruby, although variations in quality of the stones, as well as changes in demand, cause differences of price. Thus Emanuel mentions a Spinel ruby of good quality weighing 40 carats, which in 1856 was sold for two thousand dollars, but which in 1862 brought at public auction only four hundred dollars. In 1866, however, it was again sold for twelve hundred dollars. The Spinel ruby of the French crown jewels, weighing 56 carats, was in 1791 valued at ten thousand dollars. Not only is Spinel ruby related to corundum ruby in color and use, but the two are frequently associated together in nature. The gem gravels of Ceylon, Siam, Australia and Brazil contain both kinds of rubies, and the ruby mines of Upper Burmah, where the corundum ruby occurs in a crystalline limestone, produce also large quantities of Spinel rubies. Spinel rubies also come in large quantity from Badakschan, in Afghanistan, near the river Oxus, the name of Balas rubies, by which they are often known, being said to be derived from Beloochistan, or Balakschan. The Persians have a tradition regarding these mines that they were disclosed by an earthquake which rent the mountain in twain. The localities above mentioned furnish nearly all the Spinel rubies of commerce. A few have been found in North America at Hamburgh, New Jersey, and San Luis Obispo, California. But these localities have never afforded any appreciable supply. No Spinel rubies of great size are known. Bauer mentions as the largest known, two cut stones, one of 81 carats and the other 72½ carats, exhibited at the London Exposition of 1862. The King of Oude is said at one time to have possessed a Spinel ruby the size of a pigeon’s egg. Spinel occurs in many other colors besides red, such as orange, green, blue and indigo, as well as white and black. Occasionally colorless Spinels occur, and as they cannot be distinguished by their behavior in polarized light from the diamond, it is sometimes sought to substitute them for the latter. They can be detected at once, however, by their inferior hardness. While Spinels of any color, if transparent and free from flaws, make desirable gems, the only colors found in sufficient quantity outside of the red to make an appreciable supply are the blue and the black. The blue Spinels resemble the sapphire in color, though they are somewhat paler. They come chiefly from Ceylon and Burmah, where they occur together with the ruby Spinel. The black Spinel is known as Ceylonite, or pleonaste, and is also obtained chiefly from Ceylon, although occurring of quality suitable for cutting at Mount Vesuvius in Italy. Like the ruby, Spinel can be made artificially, the process being to heat a mixture of alumina and magnesia with boracic acid, and if the red color is desired, a little chromium oxide. The Spinel ruby seems to have been known to the ancients equally with the corundum ruby, and the two were probably often confounded. The natives of India call the Spinel the pomegranate ruby and believe to this day that it possesses valuable medicinal properties. Oliver Cummings Farrington. WHITE-CROWNED SPARROW. (Zonotrichia leucophrys). Life-size. 214 213 FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES. THE WHITE-CROWNED SPARROW. (Zonotrichia leucophrys.) With the snowflakes o’er the mountains Hasten past the hawks from Northland, Speed along the titmice, juncos, White-crowned Sparrows, wrens, and creepers, Tiny kinglets, sweet-voiced bluebirds, All in eager search for havens Where the touch of winter kills not. —Frank Bolles, “Birds in October.” Mr. Ernest E. Thompson calls the White-crowned Sparrow an aristocrat of the sparrow family. One of the largest of the sparrows, its beautifully marked plumage and its dignified mien, as it stands on some exposed perch, immediately attracts the attention of an observer. Its range is extensive, covering the whole of the United States during its migrations, and in winter it passes further southward into the valley regions of Mexico. In the selection of a nesting site a pure and cool atmosphere seems a paramount consideration. The mountain regions of the western United States and the country lying north of the great lakes and eastward into Labrador seem to meet the requirements for the home building of these sweet dispositioned birds. Then its music is sweetest. During its migration, however, localities not favored with its home are often regaled “with selections of its melodies as it rests in thickets and hedgerows while slowly passing through our country on its northward pilgrimage.” From some high bush or other favorable perch the male will pour forth an almost unbroken song while its mate is setting. Often this song does not cease with the going down of the sun, and it has been heard as late as midnight. It is a “lively, agreeable song, fine and clear, and is frequently heard from a score or more of birds at the same time with a most pleasing effect.” Its song, quite closely resembling that of its relative the white-throated sparrow, with which it quite frequently consorts during its migrations, yet the two songs are readily distinguishable. Mr. Thompson compares the songs. He says: “Its usual song is like the latter half of the white-throat’s familiar refrain, repeated a number of times with a peculiar, sad cadence and a clear, soft whistle that is characteristic of the group.” Dr. Coues, speaking of the two songs, says that the song of the White-crowned Sparrow is “a less enterprising vocal effort, of only five or six syllables, like pee, dee, de, de, de, the two first long drawn, rising, the rest hurried and lowering.” Transcribed into words, there are almost as many renderings of the White-crowned’s song as there are observers. Mr. Burroughs says that the song “begins with the words fe-u, fe-u, fe-u, and runs off into trills and quavers like the song sparrow’s, only much more touching.” To Mr. Langille “the song is quite peculiar, whee-who- who-zee-zee-zee, the first three notes in a clear whistle and the last three in a sort of jew’s-harp tone, the whole being decidedly pleasing, and not at all like that of the white-throat.” The food of the White-crowned sparrow consists of both insects and seeds. To some extent they feed upon berries, and Audubon states that in Labrador they also eat minute shellfish, “for which they frequently search the margins of ponds or the seashore.” This bird is a scratcher. It is also a hopper and hence scratches with both feet at once. The nest of this Sparrow is usually constructed of grass or moss and is placed either on the ground or in low bushes. Audubon describes a beautiful nest of this species which he found in Labrador. This nest “was placed in the moss, near the foot of a low fir, and was formed externally of beautiful dry green moss, matted in bunches, like the coarse hair of some quadruped; internally of very fine, dry grass, arranged with great neatness, to the thickness of nearly half an inch, with a full lining of delicate fibrous roots of a rich transparent color.” Of this beautiful Sparrow Mr. Burroughs has said: “Among the birds that tarry briefly with us in the spring on their way to Canada and beyond, there is none that I behold with so much pleasure as the White-crowned Sparrow. I have an eye out for him all through April and the first week in May. He is the rarest and most beautiful of the sparrow kind. He is crowned as some hero or victor in the games. His sparrow color, of ashen gray and brown, is very clear and bright, and his form graceful. His whole expression, however, culminates in a regular manner in his crown. The various tints of the bird are brought to a focus here and intensified, the lighter ones becoming white and the deeper ones mainly black. There is the suggestion of a crest also, from a habit this bird has of slightly elevating this part of its plumage, as if to make more conspicuous its pretty markings.” AFTER THE SNOW STORM. Chick-a-dee-dee, chick-a-dee-dee, Tell me where were you When last night the white snow drifted And the north wind blew? Chick-a-dee-dee, chick-a-dee-dee, Bonny little bird! Come anear my window, let me Whisper you a word: If you’ll stay with me all winter, Chick-a-dee-dee-dee, Apple-cores and crumbs I’ll give you; Best of friends we’ll be; You shall sit among the branches Of the lilac tree, Sit and sing anear my window, Chick-a-dee-dee-dee. Glad indeed I’ll be to see you; Promise me you’ll stay, Food and shelter I shall find you For the winter day; 215 216 And in spring I’ll give you, dearest Chick-a-dee-dee-d...