HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING Volume 3 Biological Treatment Processes HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING Volume 1: Air and Noise Pollution Control Volume 2: Solid Waste Processing and Resource Recovery Volume 3: Biological Treatment Processes Volume 4: Water Resources and Natural Control Processes Volume 5: Physicochemical Technologies for Water and Wastewater Treatment HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING Volume 3 Biological Treatment Processes Edited by Lawrence K. Wang Lenox Institute for Research Inc. Lenox, Massachusetts and Norman C. Pereira Monsanto Company St. Louis, Missouri The HUMANA Press' Clifton, New Jersey Library of Congress Catalogjng-in-Publication Data Main entry under title: Biological treatment processes. (Handbook of environmental engineering; v. 3) Includes bibliographies and index. I. Sewage-Purificatiol}-Biological treatment-Hand books, manuals, etc. I. Wang. Lawrence K. II. Pereira. Noman C. Ill. Series. TD170.H37 vol. 3 [TD755J 628 s [628.3'5IJ 85-8226 ISBN-13: 978-1-4612-9176-3 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4612-4820-0 DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4612-4820-0 © 1986 The HUMANA Press Inc .. Crescent Manor -P.O. Box 2148 . Clifton, Softcover reprint of the Hardcover 1st edition 1986 NJ 07015 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher. Preface The past few years have seen the emergence of a growing, widespread desire in this country, and indeed everywhere, that positive actions be taken to restore the quality of our environment, and to protect it from the degrading effects of all forms of pollution-air, noise, solid waste, and water. Since pollution is a direct or indirect consequence of waste, if there is no waste, there can be no pollution, and the seemingly idealistic demand for "zero discharge" can be construed as a demand for zero waste. However, as long as there is waste, we can only attempt to abate the consequent pollution by converting it to a less noxious form. In those instances in which a particular type of pollution has been recognized, three major questions usually arise: (1) How serious is the pollution? (2) Is the technology to abate it available? and (3) Do the costs of abatement justify the degree of abatement achieved? The principal intention of this series of books on environmental engineering is to help the reader formu late useful answers to the second and third of these questions, i.e., to outline the best currently available engineering solutions, and to examine their costs in the light of the real level of benefits afforded. The traditional approach of applying tried-and-true solutions to specific pollution problems has been a major factor contributing to the success of environmental engineering, and in large measure has ac counted for the establishment of a "methodology of pollution control. " However, realizing the already great complexity of current environmental problems, and understanding that, as time goes on, these issues will be come even more complex and interrelated, render it imperative that intel ligent planning of pollution abatement systems be undertaken. Prerequi site to such planning is an understanding of the performance, potential, and limitations of the various methods of pollution abatement available for environmental engineering. In this series of books, we are reviewing at a practical tutorial level a broad spectrum of engineering systems (proc esses, operations, and methods) currently being utilized, or of potential utility, for such pollution abatement. We believe that the unification of v vi PREFACE the concepts and engineering methodology found in these books is a logi cal step in the evolution of environmental engineering. The treatment of the various engineering systems presented will show how an engineering formulation of the subject flows naturally from the fundamental principles and theory of chemistry, physics, and mathe matics. This emphasis on fundamental science is based on the recognition that engineering practice has of necessity in recent years become more firmly based on scientific principles, rather than depending largely on our empirical accumulation of facts, as was earlier the case. It was not in tended, though, to neglect empiricism when such data lead quickly to the most economic design; certain engineering systems are not readily ame nable to fundamental scientific analysis, and in these instances we have resorted to less science in favor of more art and empiricism. Since an engineer must understand science within a context of appli cations, we first present the development of the scientific basis of a partic ular subject, followed by an exposition of the pertinent design concepts and operations, and then by detailed explanations of their applications to environmental quality control or improvement. Throughout, methods of practical design calculation are illustrated by numerical examples. These examples clearly demonstrate how organized, analytical reasoning leads to the most direct and clear solution. Wherever possible, pertinent cost data have been provided. Our treatment of pollution-abatement engineering is offered in the belief that the trained engineer should more firmly understand fundamen tal principles, be more aware of the similarities and/or differences among many of the engineering systems, and exhibit greater flexibility and origi nality in the definition and innovative solution of environmental pollution problems. In short, the environmental engineer should by conviction and practice be more readily adaptable to change and progress. Coverage of the unusually broad field of environmental engineering has demanded an expertise that could only be provided through multiple authorship. Each author (or group of authors) was permitted to employ, within reasonable limits, his or her personal style in organizing and pres enting a particular subject area, and consequently it has been difficult to treat all subject material in a homogeneous manner. Moreover, owing to limitations of space, some of the authors' favored topics could not be treated in great detail, and many less important topics had to be merely mentioned or commented on briefly. In addition, treatment of some well established operations, such as distillation and solvent extraction, has been totally omitted. All of the authors have provided an excellent list of references at the end of each chapter for the benefit of the interested reader. Each of the chapters is meant to be self-contained, and conse- PREFACE vii quently some mild repetition among the various texts was unavoidable. In each case, all errors of omission or repetition are the responsibility of the editors and not the individual authors. With the current trend toward metrication, the question of using a consistent system of units has been a problem. Wherever possible the authors have used the British System (fps), along with the metric equivalent (mks, cgs, or SIU), or vice versa. The authors sincerely hope that this inconsistency of units usage does not prove to be disruptive to the reader. The series has been organized in five volumes: 1. Air and Noise Pollution Control 2. Solid Waste Processing and Resource Recovery 3. Biological Treatment Processes 4. Water Resources and Natural Control Processes 5. Physicochemical Technologies for Water and Wastewater Treatment As can be seen from the above titles, no consideration is given to pollution by type of industry, or to the abatement of specific pollutants. Rather, the above categories are devised from the three basic forms in which pollutants and waste are manifested: gas, solid, and liquid. In addi tion, noise pollution control is included in Volume 1. This Engineering Handbook is designed to serve as a basic text, as well as a comprehensive reference book. We hope and expect it will prove of equal high value to advanced undergraduate or graduate stu dents, to designers of pollution abatement systems, and to research work ers. The editors welcome comments from all readers. It is our hope that these volumes will not only provide information on the various pollution abatement technologies, but will also serve as a basis for advanced study or specialized investigation of the theory and practice of the individual engineering systems covered. The editors are pleased to acknowledge the encouragement and sup port received from their colleagues at the Environmental and Energy Sys tems Department of Cal span Corporation during the conceptual stages of this endeavor. We wish to thank the contributing authors for their time and effort, and for having borne patiently our numerous queries and com ments. Finally, we are grateful to our respective families for their pa tience and understanding during some rather trying times. LAWRENCE K. WANG Lenox, Massachusetts NORMAN C. PEREIRA St. Louis, Missouri Contents Preface ................................................... v Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. xix CHAPTER 1 BIOSCIENCE CONCEPTS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL...................................... 1 MARY Lou BUNGA Y AND HENRY R. BUNGA Y I. Introduction.................................... 1 II. The Cell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 III. Biochemistry................................... 3 A. Important Compounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 B. Photosynthesis............................... 8 C. Chemosynthesis ............................. 9 D. Respiration ................................. 10 E. Nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 IV. Microbiology................................... 13 A. Bacteria.................................... 13 B. Algae...................................... 15 C. Protozoa.................................... 15 D. Fungi...................................... 16 E. Viruses..................................... 17 F. Other...................................... 18 V. Ecology....................................... 18 A. Structure of the Ecosystem .................... 18 B. Biogeochemical Cycles. . . .. . .. .. .. . . . . . .. . .. . 19 C. Interspecies Relationships ..................... 20 D. Population Dynamics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 ix X CONTENTS VI. Physical and Biological Factors in Waste Treatment Ecosystems .................................... 24 A. Chemical Composition of the Medium. . . . . . . . . . . 24 B. Indices of Pollution .......................... 25 C. Flow Rates and Concentration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 D. Surfaces and Substrata. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 E. Nutrition~ Shifts .... ... ..... ................ 27 F. Biological Interactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 G. Ecological Succession ........................ 29 VII. Conclusions.................................... 30 Suggested Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 I CHAPTER 2 TREATMENT BY APPLICATION ONTO LAND . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 DONALD B. AULENBACH AND NICHOLAS L. CLESCERI I. Introduction.................................... 33 A. Scope...................................... 33 B. Philosophy.................................. 34 II. Types......................................... 36 A. Surface Spreading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 B. Slow Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 C. Rapid Infiltration-Percolation .................. 40 D. Vegetative Cover vs Bare Ground. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 E. Final Residence of Liquid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 F. Chlorination................................. 43 III. Processes...................................... 43 A. Physical.................................... 44 B. Physical-Chemical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 C. Chemical................................... 48 D. Biological.................................. 49 E. Process Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 IV. Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 A. Preliminary Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 B. Application Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 C. Distribution Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 D. Monitoring.................................. 65 V. Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 A. Effectiveness................................ 67 B. Applicability................................ 68 C. Cost....................................... 69 CONTENTS xi D. Ease of Design for Various Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . 71 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 CHAPTER 3 TREATMENT BY SUBSURFACE APPLICATION........... 91 NICHOLAS L. CLESCERI, DONALD B. AULENBACH, AND JAMES F. ROETZER I. Introduction.................................... 91 II. Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 A. Pretreatment in a Tank. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 B. Subsurface Disposal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 III. Design........................................ 106 A. General Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 B. Septic Tank Design .......................... 107 C. Aerobic Tank Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 D. Conventional Tile Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 E. Aerobic Tile Field ........................... 116 F. Seepage Pit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 G. Institutional and Multiple Dwelling Systems . . . . . . 120 H. Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 IV. State of the Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 A. Tank Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 B. Effluent Disposal ............................ 124 C. Nutrient Removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 V. Conclusions.................................... 126 A. Cost Estimation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 B. Sample Design Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 CHAPTER 4 SUBMERGED AERATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 JERRY Y. C. HUANG I. Introduction.................................... 135 II. Aeration Performance Evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 A. Hydraulic Regimes of Performance Evaluation. . . . 137 B. Means of Deoxygenation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 C. Oxygen Saturation Concentration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 D. Data Analysis and Interpretation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142