Biography Writing in English as a Foreign Language By Justin L. Otto A Master’s Paper Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in TESOL ____________________________ Major Advisor’s Signature _____________________________ Date University of Wisconsin-River Falls 2014 Table of Contents: 1. Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………..1 2. Narratives in EFL Writing Classrooms ………………………………………………….....3 2.1 The Benefits of Instruction on Narrative Writing ……………………………………….…...3 2.2 Difficulties Faced by EFL Writers of Narratives ……………………………………….…....4 3. The Genre Approach to Teaching Narrative Writing ……………………………….….....7 3.1 Overview of the Genre Approach …………………………………………………….……...7 3.2 Methods Used for Genre-based Instruction on Narrative Writing …………………………13 3.3 Results from Genre-based Instruction on Narrative Writing ………………………………16 3.3.1 The Assessment of Genre-based Tasks ……………………………………………….16 3.3.2 Changes in Grammatical Control ……………………………………………………..17 3.3.3 Changes in Rhetoric and Organization ………………………………………………..19 3.3.4 Changes in Appropriacy ………………………………………………………………20 4. Biographies as Factual Narratives ………………………………………………………...21 5. Biographies and Contrastive Rhetoric ……………………………………………………32 6. Lesson Plans …………………………………………………………………...……………35 7. Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………..51 8. Appendices ………………………………………………………………………………….52 9. Works Cited ….……………………………………………………………………………..61 Otto 1 1. Introduction This paper examines narrative writing in English as a foreign language (EFL) classrooms, and then presents aseries oflesson plansfor teaching how to write biographies asfactual narratives. Theselesson plans would appear in a writing class for students attending a university in East Asia. While my interest in this subject stems from my background in social work, the specific requirements for similar writing tasks in healthcare and human services professions are not addressed here. Instead, I am providing a general approach to writing biographies, and this provides a foundation for other taskssuch as providing writtenbackground information about elderly patients. In human services settings,it is uncommon to write about someone as illustrious as Audrey Hepburn, but she is the sample subject in my lesson plans. As an enduring cultural icon, Hepburn’s image is already familiar to English students in many parts of theworld. Hepburn isalsochosen here to help students understand that the fameof an individual should not interfere with an accurate account of this individual’s life. In the genre of biography any subject is held to the same rules: in the words of Leon Edel, “the biographer who worships his hero blinds himself to the meaning of his material” (12). Usingthe interesting American figureAudrey Hepburn, an actress with international appeal, I have drafted a series of lesson plansto guide students into creative and accurate biographywriting, thus arming them with a broad set of rules that may be applied to specific Otto 2 settings, including human services occupations. Students in this course will learn how to present informationobjectively and with supporting evidence, with the understanding that the selection of facts is itself a creative process. Students will want to take this course because it willprepare them for othernonfiction narrative writing tasks in English, such as telling personal stories, recounting historical events, and writing life histories. These tasks apply to many fields, including social work and journalism. My lesson plans aremeant to be part of an EFL writing course on creative nonfiction. In this lesson, students will first examine the elements of English language biographiesand then use what they have learned to write about elderly subjectsof their choosing. Students will work together as partners to see how individual reports of the same subject may vary. International students from varying backgrounds should be taught the standards of appropriatebiographical writing when they embark on writing about othersin English. To do this, I advocate thegenre approach to teaching biography as a type of narrative—essentiallya story with a chronological design, in which an author must make creative decisions, including the highlighting of different events that the author considers most relevant to the representation of her subject. Prior to focusing on the subgenre of biography,this paper examines research on teaching the pre-genre(meaning basis for fiction and nonfiction genres, including autobiographies and fairy tales) of narrative(Swales 61). Extensive research has been done on this pre-genre, although specific studies on biography Otto 3 writing remainto be undertaken(61). I will examine two classes that were taught narrative writing, the former a low-proficiency class and the latter a high-proficiency class, to illustrate the application and assessment of genre-based instruction. My paper will then examine the subgenre of biography and how it relates toother narratives. To further illustrate how biography writing differs between language groups, I will closemy literature reviewwith an overview of the concept of contrastive rhetoric. This term is used in the literature to helpus understand the connection between language and thought. Finally, placing biography writing in the context of narrative genresand considering how narrativesin East Asian culturesdiffer from narratives in English, I will present a series of lesson plansfor teaching biography as a subgenre of narrative. 2. Narratives in EFL Writing Classrooms 2.1 The Benefits of Instruction onNarrative Writing Narrative writing, including writing personal stories about one’s self and others, is a common subject oflanguage study (Kormos 148). This is because it is ubiquitous, as well as enjoyable to most students (Tannen 5, Wang and Wen 239). Narratives are found embedded in other genres such as autobiography and biography (Kormos 148). Furthermore, the canonicity—or importance—of events in common narratives highlights memorable scenes in life (Bruner 11). Classes where life stories are shared have become popular in Otto 4 many institutions with EFL programs. Jun, an English student in China’s Sun Yat-Sen University, had this to say about the experience of learning creative nonfiction writing: “’I didn’t know writing can be such fun in life; I didn’t know writing can help me get close to people. Until I met creative writing course this semester!’” (Dai 553). According to Nugrahenny Zacharias, there are many advantages to teaching narrative writing in all of its forms. First, it builds a base for other types of writing. This is seen in how children begin forming discourse by storytelling—about themselves, real others, and imaginary others. Second, narratives with a personal nature allow students to connect the outside world with the academic world, thus strengthening the teacher’s role: when students bring what they have learned in class to their daily lives, the learning process continues after class has ended. Students asked to write about others begin to see the complexity in human experience, and may apply what they have learned in other interactions. Third, narratives play a vital role in the construction of human experience, as storytelling humans seek order in an often chaotic world. This process plays a therapeutic role, as writers are encouraged to use depth and feeling to accurately represent their subjects; research has found that writing this way promotes mental clarity and even physical health (95-97). Thus narrative writing exercises are beneficial for students. Otto 5 2.2 Difficulties faced by EFL Writers of Narratives Throughout countries in East Asia, traditional teaching methods have not prepared students for narrative writing assignments. Writing aboutJapan, David Mauchlan observes, “One commonly sees students in a train studying lexical words as if memorizing a dictionary, and English words in advertisements are often completely out of their normal context” (94). I have witnessed similar behavior in South Korea and in Taiwan. Students in this part of the world are typically expected to learn English, like other subjects, via the faculty of memory. When students become better writers, however, such an approach does not allow them to understand English in broader contexts, such as narratives (79). This may be because a student’s first language affects her organizational process when writing. In her comparison of the content of Korean and English narratives, J.Y. Kang discovered that cohesion and written discourse features varied in Korean students’ writings in Korean and in English. Korean students seemed aware of a difference, or target form, and this is evidenced by the fact that their essays revealed different patternsdepending on the language that they used. “Unlike in their Korean narratives, the Korean EFL learners used pronouns for references most frequently in their English narratives, as the NES [Native English Speakers] did,” and “Koreans used causative conjunctions and additive conjunctions frequently in their English writing” (272). A MANOVA [Multivariate analysis of variance] on this data confirms that Korean writers favored causative, temporal, and simultaneous Otto 6 temporal conjunctions, just as they were more likely than the NES group to use lexical repetitions and synonyms in their narratives (272). Written discourse features differed in that the Koreans used fewer of each feature in their writing samples, especiallyrelative clauses and conjoined phrases. Furthermore, this study finds that the NES used more of the identified criteria in their samples (“participles, adverbial clauses that express manner, purposive adverbial clauses, and nominalizations”) when compared to Korean EFL narratives, and the usage of relative clauses in general varied greatly, but when the NES narratives were compared to the Korean students’ L1 narratives, no differences were found between the use of these features (272). Wang and Wen’s findings on the use of Chinese as a first language in EFL writing further illustrate difficulties faced by East Asian EFL writers of narratives. Wang and Wen studied sixteenfemale Chinese English majors atNanjing Universityin China. These students had eightyears of EFL instruction averaging four hours per week and ranged from intermediate to advanced learners (229). Wang and Wen learned that code switching (alternating between languages) to Chinese was more frequent in the composition process for narratives, rather than argumentative essays, when students were thinking aloud. Code switching entered the think-aloud data 32% of the time in the former and 24% of the time for the latter. (234). Narratives may draw more upon the L1 of the writer. Considering that narratives are the first form of discourse learned by children, this makes sense. Students Otto 7 know how to tell stories, and doing so requires reference to L1 skills. There is some evidence to support that code switching is to the writer’s advantage (Raims 418). In helping us to understand the gap between first and second language writing in East Asia, Virginia Gonzalez chose to study the writing of one Mandarin speaking Taiwanese student under the pseudonym of ‘Lucy Marie’ (423). Findings for Lucy Marie’s case and other research indicate certain difficulties with English in native Mandarin Chinese speakers. Theseinclude variants in word orderand difficulty using inflection with pronouns (transferring between he/sheand him/her) (432). Lucy Marie’s writing, furthermore, reflected communicative problems apart from grammatical difficulties. A revealing example is her use of metaphors, at times translating directly with the inappropriate goal of carrying the same meaning (“you may just like the one who don’t have feet to walk” and “we can take them as our mirror”) (434). Lucy Marie’s case is one of many that suggests common communicative difficulties for Chinese speakers writing in English. In the above examples, it can be seen that students face difficulties with finding the appropriate language for narrative genres and using this language correctly. The genre approach to teaching narrative writing addresses these concerns. Otto 8 3. The Genre Approach to Teaching Narrative Writing 3.1 Overview of the Genre Approach In the world of English readers and writers, certain norms within writing styles are easily identifiable. These signature norms are represented by genre, meaning category of literary composition. Genres vary, from business letter writing to folklore. “Genre refers to abstract, socially recognized ways of using language,” and genres stem from what readers and writers in a language group expect to see in a given text (Hyland, Genre Pedagogy149). Teaching writing requires instructors to provide adequate representations of a given genre “to discover facts about construction and specific language use which are common to that genre,” (Harmer 327). The genre approach is an answer to the processapproach, anearlier technique that emphasizes guided revisions rather than contextual understanding (Gao 1). For the context of writing to be understood, relevant genre knowledge—including the features and norms of a specific genre—needs to be taught explicitly (Gao1). Furthermore, while the process approach may guide students to a suitable end product, the emphasis on process leaves many of the features of written forms outside the range of writing instruction. Excluding these featuresis especially problematic for international students who have prior notions of what constitutes good writing for a given purpose (Reppen 32). Over the course of the development of the discipline of TESOL, approaches to teaching writing have shifted from the focus-on-form approach of the 1960s and 1970s (which placed