BIOLOGY (ZOOLOGY) HIGHER SECONDARY - SECOND YEAR Untouchability is a sin Untouchability is a crime Untouchability is inhuman TAMIL NADU TEXTBOOK CORPORATION College Road, Chennai - 600 006. © Government of Tamilnadu First Edition - 2005 Reprint - 2006 Chairperson Prof. T. SARGUNAM STEPHEN P. G and Research Dept. of Zoology Govt. Arts College Nandanam, Chennai - 600 035. Reviewers Dr. K. Vijayaraman Dr. K. Ramalingam Reader Head, P. G. Dept. of Zoology Reader P.G and Research Dept. of Zoology Periyar EVR Govt. Arts College Govt. Arts College, Nandanam, Trichy - 620 020. Chennai - 600 035. Dr. P. Daisy Reader and Head, Dept. of Zoology and Biotechnology Holy Cross College Trichy - 620 002. Authors Thiru. T. Sekar Dr. (Tmt) Flankit Thomas P.G.T. in Zoology PGT in Zoology Govt.Girls Higher Sec School CSI Jessie Moses Mat. and Hr.Sec School Choolaimedu, Chennai - 600 094. Anna nagar, Chennai - 600 040. Thiru N. Kumaravel P.G.T. in Zoology M.F.S.D. Higher Sec.School Price : Rs. Sowcarpet, Chennai - 600 079. This book has been prepared by The Directorate of School Education on behalf of the Government of Tamilnadu. This book has been printed on 60 GSM Paper. Preface Biology or Life science has made rapid progress. Advancements in several fields of Science and Technology have provided the tools to understand life processes. As humanity faces several problems related to population growth, environmental degradation, energy crisis, epidemic diseases, food production and species extinctions the challenges faced by the biologists in finding appropriate solutions to such issues has become his/ her sacred duty. Thus the future remedial measures for ensuring human sur- vival and biosphere safeguarding shall require a vast army of personnel with a sound knowledge of Biology. Hence the scope for future biologists is evergrowing. The contents of this book provide basic informations on several fields of biology that have become life supporting disciplines. The students are exposed to fascinating fields such as Human Physiology, Medicine, Microbiology, Immunology, Bio-informatics, Environmental Biology, Genomics, Aquaculture, Medical Laboratory Techniques, Livestock management etc. More information related to these fields can be obtained from appropriate websites and reference books. Contents in this book have been prepared in such a way that the students can have a glimpse of several disciplines and might help them to decide on their future career and further given study plans. Further, the materials given are technical information that provide knowledge for to-day’s living. T. Sargunam Stephen Chairperson Biology (Zoology) Text book writing committee. iii Standard XII - Biology (Zoology) Syllabus Theory I : Human physiology - Nutrition : Introduction - Carbohydrates - Proteins - Lipids - Vitamins - Minerals - Water - Balanced diet - Calorie values (ICMR standards) - Obesity - Hyperglycemia - hypoglycemia - Malnutritions. Digestion : Enzymes and enzyme action - Brief account of following - Dental caries - Root canal therapy - Peptic ulcer - Hernia - Appendicitis - Gall bladder stone - Liver cirrhosis - Hepatitis. Bones and Joints (Major types) : Fractures - Dislocations - Arthritis - Rickets and osteomalacia - Orthopaedics - Gout. Muscles : Muscle action - Muscle tone - Rigor mortis - Muscle pull (hernia) - Isometric and aerobic exercises (Body building) - Myasthenia gravis. Respiration : Process of pulmonary respiration - Inspiration - Expiration - Ex- change of gases at alveolar level - Control of respiration - Pneumonia - Pleurisy - Tuberculosis - Bronchitis - Breathing exercises Circulation-Functioning of heart-Origin and conduction of heart beat. Artificial pacemaker-Coronary blood vessel and its significance-Myocardial infarction,Angina pectoris-Angiogram,angioplasty and coronary bipass surgery- Atherosclerosis-Heart attack-Heart block-ECG and Echo cardiograph-Heart valves Rheumatic Heart Disease (RHD)-ICCU- Arterial and venous systems-Blood pressure-pulse rate-Heart transplantation Resuscitation in Heart attack (First Aid)-Blood components Function-Plasma-Corpuscles -Blood clotting-Anticoagulants-Throm- bosis-Embolism-blood related diseases like polycythemia Leukemia-Lymph fluid. Physiological-Co-ordination Systems-Brain-Functioning of different regions-Memory-Sleep-Stroke-Alzhemier’s disease-Meningitis/Brain fever Condi- tioned reflex-Electroencephalography-Right brain-left brain concept-Spinal cord- Functioning-Reflex action-CSF-Chemical co-ordination-Pituitary (Hormones of Ad- enohypophysis and their regulations)-Thyroid,Parathyroidal hormones-Insulin and Glucagon-Hormones of Adrenal cortex and Medulla-Reproductive Hormones-Prob- lems related to Secretion Non secretion of Hormones. Receptor Organs-Eye-Focussing Mechanism & photo chemistry of retina-Short sightedness-Longsightedness-Optometry-Retinopathy-Cataract-Lens replacement- Nyctalopia-Eye infection-Conjunctivitis-Glaucuoma-Eye care-EAR-Hearing mecha- nism-Organ of corti-Hearing impairments and aids-Noise pollution and its impor- tance-SKIN-Melanin-functions-Effect of solar radiations/UV-Skin Grafting- Dematitis-TONGUE-Gustatory reception. iv Excretion-Ureotelism-Urea Biosynthesis(Ornithine Cycle)-Nephron ultrafiltration,tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion-Renal failure-Dialysis Kid- ney stone formation-Kidney Transplantation-Diabetes. Reproductive system-Brief account of speramtogenesis - Oogenesis Menstrual cycle-Invitro fertilization-Birthcontrol II. Microbiology : Introduction-History of Medical Microbiology-The influence of Pasteur Koch, and Lister-Virology, Structure, Genetics, Culture and diseases-AIDS and its control-Bacteriology-Structure,Genetics and diseases-Protozoan microbiol- ogy-Disease oriented-Pathogenecity of Micro organism-Anti microbial resistance Chemotherapy. III.Immunology: Innate(Non-specific) Immunity-Anatomical Barriers-Physiological Barriers-Phagocytic Barriers-Lymphoidal organs -Thymus-Bursa of Fabricius-Pe- ripheral Lymphoid Organs-Lymph nodes-Spleen-Antibodies-Immunoglobulins-Re- gions of polypepetide chain-Transplantation immunology-Classification of grafts- Genetic basis of organ transplants-Immune system disorder. IV. Modern genetics : Introduction-Scope-Human Genetics karyotyping Chromo- some gene mapping, Recombinant DNA technology and segmenting. Genetic diseases-Human Genome project-Cloning-Transgenic organisms Geneti- cally Modified Organisms (GMO)-Genetherapy-Bio informatics application-DNA sequencing and protein structure.Biological database- V. Environmental science : Human population and explosion-Issue-Global warming Crisis Green House Effect-Ozone layer depletion Waste mangement-Biodiversiy conservation (Biosphere reserves) Government and Non Govermental organisations involved-Energy crisis and Environmental impact-Poverty and environment-Fresh water crisis and management. VI. Applied biology : Livestock and Management-Dairy-Breeds of cattle-Milch breed- Draught breed-Dual purpose-Common diseases and control-Exotic and cross breeds- Techniques adopted in cattle breeding. Poultry-Farming techniques-Breeds. Farming methods-Poultry diseases-Economic value. Pisciculture-Fish farming-Edible fishes of Tamilnadu. Medical Lab Techniques-Stethoscope-Sphygmomanometer-Heamocytometer-Urine- Sugar analysis-ECG-’PQRST’wave-CTScan-Endoscopic (Laproscopic) techniques- Artificial pacemaker-Auto analyser-- VII. Theories of evolution : Lamarckism-Neolamarckism-Darwinism-NeoDarwinism/ Modern concept of natural selection-Species concept-Origin of species and Isolat- ing Mechanisms v SYLLABUS FOR PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY - (Short Version) STANDARD - XII 1. Qualitative test for carboydrates, proteins and lipids - 1 test each 2. Test of urea in urine of a mammal 3. Rate of activity of human salivary amylase in relation to temperature. 4. Study of perpared slides - Entamoeba, Scolex of tapeworm, mature proglottis, Red blood corpuscles, white blood corpuscles 5. Models and specimens - Mammalian Brain / model, Eye model, Ear model, Mammalian Kidney - Nephron model, Heart model 6. Instruments / Drugs - 1. Stethescope 2. Sphygmomonometer 3. An eye drop bottle having antibiotic fluid 4. Eye lotion 5. Bifocal eye lens 7. Project Report (minimum two) 1. Visit to Medical Laboratory or Hospital or Research Laboratory 2. Visit to a Dairy or Poultry or Fish farm 3. Visit to a site havintg rain water harvesting vi BIOLOGY - ZOOLOGY CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE 1. HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 001 2. MICROBIOLOGY 116 3. IMMUNOLOGY 134 4. MODERN GENETICS 149 5. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 173 6. APPLIED BIOLOGY 207 7. THEORIES OF EVOLUTION 241 vii 1. HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY Introduction Physiology is the study of functioning of organs and organ systems. All physiological activities are aimed at maintenance of homeostasis, living and reproduction. Homeostasis differentiates a living being from the non-living world. It provides the uniqueness for a self- duplicating, genomicized groups of organisms. Homeostatic mechanisms involve stabilizing an optimum level of water, minerals and other components of the body fluids and other thermal regulations. It is achieved by several bio-physical, bio-chemical processes, hormonal secretions and related metabolic modifications. The phenomenon of living is made possible due to several types of evolved organs and their well co-ordinated functions. The functioning of heart as a pumping organ being emotionally controlled is astonishing. The oxygen association and dissociation capabilities of blood pigments, cascading effects of minimal amount of hormones at molecular limits, the process of nervous conduction, analyzing and memory maintaining capacities of the brain, the holistic visual perception of the eye are all wonderful inventions of nature towards a simple process of living. The attainment of a simplified process of sexual reproduction for a complicated, genetically oriented mechanisms for sex cells production and procreation is stunningly marvellous. The orientation of reproductive strategies towards social, environmental and futuristic motives is highly precise and purposeful. Thus all the functionings of a living system are highly complicated mechanisms with a simple outlook. In the forthcoming chapter an attempt has been made to highlight defects in functioning, remedial attempts and life-style modifications. Proper treatment of such an objective will result in a voluminous work. Yet, a simple attempt has been made to provide the information. 1 While going through the pages of this chapter, the learners may recollect the human anatomy learnt in the previous class. Knowledge and remembrance of anatomy will simplify an understanding of physiological processes. Nutrition The survival of all living organisms is due to several types of nutritive processes. The process of nutrition involves ingestion digestion, absorption and assimilation of food materials. The composition of nutrients vary in different types of feeding. However, for all living organisms, the nutrient comprises the following organic and inorganic components. They are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals and water. Each component has a specific functional role. A well proportioned intake of nu- trients depends on several factors such as stage of growth, sex, health con- dition, bodily activities and environmental situations. Carbohydrates (Poly hydroxyaldehydes (or) ketones.) A carbohydrate is composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio of 1:2:1 (CH O)n. They are of three types namely monosaccharides, 2 disaccharides and polysaccharides Monosaccharides: These are the simplest form of carbohydrates being comprised of a single organic molecule. Depending on the number of carbon atoms they are classified into trioses, tetroses, pentoses, and hexoses. The trioses (C H O ) are common intermediary products in 3 6 3 carbohydrate metabolic processes. They play an important role in inter con version of biomolecules. (eg. glyceraldehydes). Pentoses (C H O ) like 5 10 5 ribose and deoxyribose are the integral components of RNA and DNA molecules. The Hexoses(C H O ) such as glucose, fructose and 6 12 6 galactose are food components commonly consumed. Carbohydrates are commonly employed by the cells for providing energy. The energy metabolism happens through glycolytic processes involving oxidative, citric acid cycle. The energy liberated is stored in the form of ATPs (Adenosine triphosphate). 2 Each gram of carbohydrate is capable of yeilding energy equivalent of 4.1 calories. Disaccharides These are the carbohydrates formed by condensation of two monosaccharide monomers. These are found in common food substances such as milk and sugar. There are three common disaccharides namely mal- tose, sucrose and lactose. They have the following composition Maltose (cid:224) glucose + glucose (In germinating cereals) Sucrose (cane sugar) (cid:224) glucose + fructose Lactose (milk) (cid:224) glucose + galactose Polysaccharides These are complex carbohydrates formed by polymerisation of a large number of monosaccharides. Nature abundantly produces various types of polysaccharides. Several of them are structural components in the living world eg. chitin, cellulose. Starch molecules serve as storage food materials trap- ping enormous amount of energy. In food grains, starch is available as pectin and amylopectin molecules. Glycogen, a polysaccharide is found in liver and muscles. Proteins(Polypeptides) Proteins are nitrogenous compounds being made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Proteins also contain sulphur. In living systems proteins play an important role in the structural organisation eg., cell membrane, hairs, nails and muscles. Many of the proteins serve as enzymes. They are named as functional proteins. The building blocks of proteins are aminoacids. There are approximately twenty different types of amino acids, such as glycine, alanine, serine, valine, leucin, proline etc. The amino acids are classified as essential and non essential amino acids. Essential amino acids can not be synthesised in our body. Hence they should be made available through food. The essential amino acids are arginine, valine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lycine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine and tryptophan. The non- essential amino acids can be synthesized in our body from other compounds. Such amino acids need not be added in the diet. 3