Advanced Sciences and Technologies for Security Applications Richard Jiang · Ahmed Bouridane · Chang-Tsun Li · Danny Crookes · Said Boussakta · Feng Hao · Eran A. Edirisinghe   Editors Big Data Privacy and Security in Smart Cities Advanced Sciences and Technologies for Security Applications Editor-in-Chief Anthony J. Masys, Associate Professor, Director of Global Disaster Management, Humanitarian Assistance and Homeland Security, University of South Florida, Tampa, USA Advisory Editors Gisela Bichler, California State University, San Bernardino, CA, USA Thirimachos Bourlai, Lane Department of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering, Multispectral Imagery Lab (MILab), West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA Chris Johnson, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK Panagiotis Karampelas, Hellenic Air Force Academy, Attica, Greece Christian Leuprecht, Royal Military College of Canada, Kingston, ON, Canada Edward C. Morse, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA David Skillicorn, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada Yoshiki Yamagata, National Institute for Environmental Studies, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan Indexed by SCOPUS The series Advanced Sciences and Technologies for Security Applications comprises interdisciplinary research covering the theory, foundations and domain-specific topics pertaining to security. Publications within the series are peer-reviewed monographs and edited works in the areas of: • biological and chemical threat recognition and detection (e.g., biosensors, aerosols, forensics) • crisis and disaster management • terrorism • cyber security and secure information systems (e.g., encryption, optical and photonic systems) • traditional and non-traditional security • energy, food and resource security • economic security and securitization (including associated infrastructures) • transnational crime • human security and health security • social, political and psychological aspects of security • recognition and identification (e.g., optical imaging, biometrics, authentication and verification) • smart surveillance systems • applications of theoretical frameworks and methodologies (e.g., grounded the- ory, complexity, network sciences, modelling and simulation) Together, the high-quality contributions to this series provide a cross-disciplinary overview of forefront research endeavours aiming to make the world a safer place. The editors encourage prospective authors to correspond with them in advance of submitting a manuscript. Submission of manuscripts should be made to the Editor-in-Chief or one of the Editors. · · Richard Jiang Ahmed Bouridane · · · Chang-Tsun Li Danny Crookes Said Boussakta · Feng Hao Eran A. Edirisinghe Editors Big Data Privacy and Security in Smart Cities Editors Richard Jiang Ahmed Bouridane School of Computing and Communications Centre for Data Analytics Lancaster University and Cybersecurity Lancaster, UK University of Sharjah Sharjah, United Arab Emirates Chang-Tsun Li School of Information Technology Deakin Danny Crookes University Deakin Queen’s University Belfast Geelong, VIC, Australia Belfast, UK Said Boussakta Feng Hao School of Engineering Department of Computer Science Newcastle University University of Warwick Newcastle upon Tyne, UK Warwick, UK Eran A. Edirisinghe Keele University Staffordshire, UK ISSN 1613-5113 ISSN 2363-9466 (electronic) Advanced Sciences and Technologies for Security Applications ISBN 978-3-031-04423-6 ISBN 978-3-031-04424-3 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04424-3 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Contents Smart Cities: A Survey of Tech-Induced Privacy Concerns ............ 1 Edgard Musafiri Mimo and Troy McDaniel Ethics of Face Recognition in Smart Cities Toward Trustworthy AI .... 23 Mengjun Tao, Richard Jiang, and Carolyn Downs A Technical Review on Driverless Vehicle Technologies in Smart Cities ............................................................. 53 Yijie Zhu, Richard Jiang, and Qiang Ni A Mechanism to Maintain Node Integrity in Decentralised Systems .... 73 Monjur Ahmed and Md. Mahabub Alam Bhuiyan Incident Detection System for Industrial Networks ................... 83 Karel Kuchar, Eva Holasova, Radek Fujdiak, Petr Blazek, and Jiri Misurec Predictive Maintenance of Vehicle Fleets Using LSTM Autoencoders for Industrial IoT Datasets ............................ 103 Arindam Chaudhuri, Rajesh Patil, and Soumya K. Ghosh A Comparative Study on the User Experience on Using Secure Messaging Tools ................................................... 119 Blerton Abazi and Renata Gegaj A Survey on AI-Enabled Pandemic Prediction and Prevention: What We Can Learn from COVID .................................. 133 Yijie Zhu, Richard Jiang, and Qiang Ni Blockchain Based Health Information Exchange Ecosystem: Usecase on Travellers .............................................. 147 Fatima Khalique, Sabeen Masood, Maria Safeer, and Shoab Ahmed Khan v vi Contents Video-Based Heart Rate Detection: A Remote Healthcare Surveillance Tool for Smart Homecare .............................. 159 Thomas Harrison, Zhaonian Zhang, and Richard Jiang A Survey on the Integration of Blockchain and IoT: Challenges and Opportunities ................................................. 197 Mwrwan Abubakar, Zakwan Jarocheh, Ahmed Al-Dubai, and Xiaodong Liu Quantum Bitcoin: The Intersection of Bitcoin, Quantum Computing and Blockchain ........................................ 223 Yijie Zhu, Qiang Ni, Richard Jiang, Ahmed Bouridane, and Chang-Tsun Li Biometric Blockchain (BBC) Based e-Passports for Smart Border Control ........................................................... 235 Bing Xu, Qiang Ni, Richard Jiang, Ahmed Bouridane, and Chang-Tsun Li Smart Cities: A Survey of Tech-Induced Privacy Concerns Edgard Musafiri Mimo and Troy McDaniel Abstract Internet of Things (IoT) has become a prominent part of the technologies leveraged by smart cities. IoT enables the collection of data and the processing of information to provide a better value to the city and its citizens. The use of IoT devices in smart cities has enabled many applications that generate security issues despite their provided benefits. These security issues in return generate more citizens’ or users’ privacy issues as the data and information flow are compromised. There are many privacy related concerns in smart cities that are generated from the security issues pertaining to IoT, Big Data, and ICT enabled tech applications, which require a thorough understanding to better build resilient privacy aware smart cities. This paper provides a comprehensive, characterized, and wide-ranging synopsis of the research on privacy issues springing from IoT, Big Data, and ICT enabled tech applications and their associated security flaws and presents solutions as they pertain to the relevant citizen value driven privacy framework quadrant (Musafiri Mimo and McDaniel in 3D privacy framework: the citizen value driven privacy framework [1]). The characterization is based on the application’s most relevant privacy framework quadrant, the applicable security flaws, and the present solutions that potentially lessen the associated privacy concerns among citizens in smart cities. · · · · · · Keywords Smart cities Privacy Framework Security Surveillance IoT · · · · · · Big Data ICT Citizen centered ITS Smart energy Smart governance Smart health B E. M. Mimo ( ) · T. McDaniel Arizona State University, Tempe, USA e-mail: emusafi[email protected] T. McDaniel e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 1 R. Jiang et al. (eds.), Big Data Privacy and Security in Smart Cities, Advanced Sciences and Technologies for Security Applications, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04424-3_1 2 E.M.MimoandT.McDaniel 1 Introduction With the current growth of the urban population around the world, there is a defi- nite need for the major cities to transition from just being cities into becoming relevant smart cities. This is important because of the challenges that arise due to the overcrowding of cities caused by the migration of citizens from rural to urban places where most of the provided services tend to exist. The provision of services and opportunities in smart cities require automation, optimization, and efficiency to better manage the operations of smart cities with the needed speed and reliability to satisfy the need of the citizens. These provisions are enabled even more as advances and progress from IoT, Big Data, and ICT frameworks take place with the techno- logical transformation of the smart cities to meet the present needs and the future necessities of the cities to ensure citizens thrive. It is important to consider how technologies and systems that are deployed to interact with citizens are drastically transforming the way smart cities are shaped as citizens find numerous accommodating ways to accept and adopt the technolo- gies and the systems. The internet of things (IoT), Big Data, and the information communication technology (ICT) frameworks form the basis on which smart cities are built today, and as such, they enable the possibility of having efficient, optimal and practical smart cities that solve citizens’ problems in terms of demand, supply, and management of their needs and services. However, the practical smart cities that are built simply based on IoT, Big Data and ICT frameworks have manifested some lack of effectiveness not because of the problems and issues they are or are not able to solve, but because of the problems and issues they have generated for citizens themselves. The generated problems pertaining to citizens’ security and privacy tend to be of more value to the citizens than the problems that the frameworks intended to solve in the first place. The generated issues are namely privacy, security and ownership of the technologies, systems, and their data; all of which are the result of the IoT, Big Data and ICT frameworks. The issue of effectiveness points and focuses more on the issues that affect the citizens and their associated long-term effects on the citizens. The issue of privacy and security is important to all citizens, and as such they should be considered and addressed not when there are IoT enabled tech applications’ problems generated, but rather during the integration process where these three frameworks meet and converge to enable smart cities’ capabilities. The advancement and availability of various IoT devices and systems have enabled the collection of a plethora of types of data in high volume that has enabled more progress in Big Data as more value becomes available with proper analysis of the data. The processing of information that ICT systems enable to provide a better value to the city and its citizens remains one of the two biggest assets of smart cities and the other is the citizens themselves. The presence and deployment of IoT devices in smart cities have enabled many applications; many of which are generating a lot of security issues despite the benefits. These security issues in return generate more citizens’ or users’ privacy issues and concerns as the data and the information SmartCities:ASurveyofTech-InducedPrivacyConcerns 3 flow in the smart cities’ ecosystem are compromised. There are many enabled tech application security issues that generate privacy related concerns in smart cities that require in-depth consideration to better build resilient privacy aware smart cities. Consequently, it is paramount to assess, understand, and reconsider the security and the privacy concerns that are generated by IoT, Big Data and ICT frameworks pertaining to the applications and systems they enable to make smart cities possible. Smart cities must be enabled in a way that preserves the security and privacy of the citizens as recommended by the 3D citizen value driven framework [1] that suggests building citizen privacy aware smart cities for their effective enablement. The objective of this paper is to provide an overview of the various privacy related security issues and some associated present and future solutions that spring forth in literature through the engagement of IoT, Big Data and ICT frameworks in the implementation of smart city technologies as they pertain to the most relevant citizen value driven privacy framework quadrant [1]. The characterization of several smart cities’ applications, systems and technologies springing from IoT, Big Data and ICT enabled services and applications in smart cities that present some security induced privacy concerns are discussed to showcase the relevance of the citizen value driven privacy framework quadrant and the available means to lessen the associated privacy related security concerns. 2 Related Work 2.1 Internet of Things (IoT) IoT remains one of the main enablers of smart cities because of the possibilities of providing avenues to collect the necessary data or information in various ways and forms to enable good and informed decision making in the overall smart cities’ transformation. It is very difficult to completely define IoT and its impacts in enabling smart cities, yet its presence is seen and felt almost everywhere in all the sectors of smart cities. Thus, IoT constitutes the core of the smart city’s implementation since without its advancements and deployments over the years, many smart cities’ initiatives would be almost impossible today. The objective of IoT is to provide ways to collect all types of data in various ways both for structure and unstructured data. The various ways of data collection form a network enabled by the IoT deployment of devices to ensure the smart city possesses the right instrumentation to enable the needed interconnectedness that powers the intelligence of smart cities [2]. This network is built with instrumentation that includes various sensors, actua- tors, electronics, networks, firmware, middleware, and software. The instrumentation allows for various objects or things like computers, smart phones, wearable devices, homes, buildings, structures, vehicles, and energy systems to become the collectors of data in smart cities, and as such there are multitude of data types and data sources that can be collected and enabled respectively. The services the IoT devices enable