Beyond the Bonus March and GI Bill Beyond the Bonus March and GI Bill How Veteran Politics Shaped the New Deal Era Stephen R. Ortiz a NEW YORK UNIVERSITY pRESS New York and London NEW YORK UNIVERSITY pRESS New York and London www.nyupress.org © 2010 by New York University All rights reserved Library of Congress Cataloging-in-publication Data Ortiz, Stephen R. Beyond the Bonus March and GI Bill : how veteran politics shaped the New Deal era / Stephen R. Ortiz. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978–0–8147–6213–4 (cloth : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0–8147–6213–1 (cloth : alk. paper) 1. Veterans—United States—political activity—History—20th century. 2. World War, 1914–1918—Veterans—United States. 3. Veterans— Government pollicy—United States—History—20th century. 4. Veterans—United States—Economic conditions—20th century. 5. Veterans—Education—United States—History—20th century. 6. Bonus Expeditionary Forces. 7. protest movements—Washington (D.C.)—History—20th century. 8. New Deal, 1933–1939. 9. United States—politics and government—1918–1933. 10. United States— politics and government—1933–1945. I. Title. II. Title: Beyond the Bonus March and G.I. Bill. UB357.O78 2009 362.86’561097309043—dc22 2009023997 New York University press books are printed on acid-free paper, and their binding materials are chosen for strength and durability. We strive to use environmentally responsible suppliers and materials to the greatest extent possible in publishing our books. Manufactured in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 For Renée and Bianca Contents Acknowledgments ix Introduction 1 1 Veterans’ policy and Veteran Organizations, 1917–1929 13 2 Rethinking the Bonus March 32 3 The “New Deal” for Veterans 66 4 The Bonus Re-emerges 99 5 “The pro-Bonus party” 122 6 Veteran politics and the New Deal’s 153 political Triumph of 1936 Conclusion: GI Bill Legacies 187 postscript: A GI Bill for the Twenty-first Century? 207 Notes 211 Index 245 About the Author 249 vii Acknowledgments As an avid, some might say obsessive, reader of Acknowledg- ments pages, I am daunted by the lyricism so many historians display in recognizing their debts both intellectual and personal. The lack of poetry found here, however, in no way diminishes the genuine gratitude I feel toward the people and institutions that have helped this book come to fruition. This book is the culmination of work begun under the keen guidance of Jeff Adler, Bob Zieger, Bob McMahon, and Louise Newman. Jeff Adler offered unusually astute editorial and substantive advice, even though the topic and the approach of this project moved in directions that nei- ther of us could have possibly guessed when I began it. Throughout, he never doubted the significance of my work or that it would be completed. For that, I am forever appreciative. Bob McMahon and Louise Newman have been constant sources of support. Bob Zieger brought his encyclo- pedic knowledge of the 1930s to his reading of drafts of this project at all stages. While factual errors and sloppy argumentation may remain in this book, Bob has stopped most of it in its tracks. (Of course, any such errors or sloppiness left over are my responsibility, and mine alone.) Always a cheerful supporter, Bob also has been a great mentor to me as a writer. His editorial pen is tough but nearly always right. The book is infinitely better thanks to Bob. I am proud to count him as a friend and mentor. A wonderful group of scholars interested in veterans’ issues has left its imprint on this study. Jennifer Keene played an enormous role in the de- velopment of the project. She offered to read drafts at every stage and gave very valuable suggestions along the way. What started as a “cold” e-mail to the person who wrote Doughboys, the Great War, and the Remaking of America has become a great personal and intellectual friendship. Her generosity to an unknown writer and her continual support throughout my career set Jennifer apart as a true role model in scholarly collegiality. G. Kurt piehler embraced this project while directing the Center for the ix x Acknowledgments Study of War and Society at the University of Tennessee. Kurt’s efforts in advancing my work and career have been extraordinarily kind and sup- portive. Mike Neiberg, Nancy Gentile Ford, and David Gerber provided thoughtful commentary on my work in its early stages that helped shape it significantly. Bruce Vandervort and Donald Critchlow, editors of the Journal of Military History and the Journal of Policy History, respectively, and the anonymous reviewers of those journals helped refine my thinking a great deal. I am grateful for their support and encouragement. At both the research and writing stage, numerous institutions and in- dividuals provided financial and archival assistance. The Herbert Hoover presidential Library Association made a research trip to the Hoover ar- chives possible through a Robert R. McCormick Tribune Foundation travel grant. While I was there, the staff, most notably Matthew Schaefer, cheerfully led a novice through the archives. The Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt Institute provided travel assistance to me on two separate occa- sions, the second time through an Albert M. Greenfield Research Fellow- ship. It is no stretch to say that without this assistance, this book would not exist. At the FDR archives, Mark A. Renovitch and Karen Anson were extremely helpful guides. More recently, Karen aided in the photo repro- ductions found in the book. A special note of thanks goes to archivist Bob Clark. Bob happily helped this research in countless ways. And, after many visits to Hyde park over the years, I am glad to now count him as a friend. Joseph Hovish and Howard Trace, curators of the American Le- gion Library at the Legion National Headquarters in Indianapolis, helped tremendously as I navigated their archives and located photographs for the book. I am extremely grateful for their assistance and the American Legion’s cooperation. Bowling Green State University’s Department of History and College of Arts and Sciences provided invaluable time off for the writing of the manuscript. Scott Martin, the department chair, and then Dean Don Nieman graciously agreed to grant me course releases for a semester off in my first year as a faculty member—no small concession. Special mention goes to the Veterans of Foreign Wars National Head- quarters and the publisher and editor-in-chief of VFW magazine, Richard Kolb. Rich literally sat in a dark and cold headquarters building after a bru- tal Kansas City ice storm in order to let me have access to their materials. He has had a hand in this project since its inception. More recently, Rob Wid- ener, the art director of VFW magazine, has helped with the reproduction of the wonderful cartoons that graced the old Foreign Service magazines. This book owes its existence to the good men and women of the VFW.