Topics in Intelligent Engineering and Informatics 9 Jan Romportl Eva Zackova Jozef Kelemen Editors Beyond Artificial Intelligence The Disappearing Human-Machine Divide Topics in Intelligent Engineering and Informatics Volume 9 Serieseditors JánosFodor,Budapest,Hungary ImreJ.Rudas,Budapest,Hungary EditorialAdvisoryBoard IldarBatyrshin(Mexico) JózsefBokor(Hungary) BernardDeBaets(Belgium) HamidoFujita(Japan) ToshioFukuda(Japan) FumioHarashima(Japan) KaoruHirota(Japan) EndrePap(Serbia) BogdanM.Wilamowski(USA) ReviewBoard P.Baranyi(Hungary) U.Bodenhofer(Austria) G.Fichtinger(Canada) R.Fullér(Finland) A.Galántai(Hungary) L.Hluchý(Slovakia) MOJamshidi(USA) J.Kelemen(CzechRepublic) D.Kocur(Slovakia) P.Korondi(Hungary) G.Kovács(Hungary) L.T.Kóczy(Hungary) L.Madarász(Slovakia) CH.C.Nguyen(USA) E.Petriu(Canada) R.-E.Precup(Romania) S.Preitl(Romania) O.Prostean(Romania) V.Puri(Italy) GY.Sallai(Hungary) J.Somló(Hungary) M.Takács(Hungary) J.Tar(Hungary) L.Ungvari(Germany) A.R.Várkonyi-Kóczy(Hungary) P.Várlaki(Hungary) L.Vokorokos(Slovakia) Moreinformationaboutthisseriesathttp://www.springer.com/series/10188 · Jan Romportl Eva Zackova Jozef Kelemen Editors Beyond Artificial Intelligence The Disappearing Human-Machine Divide ABC Editors JanRomportl JozefKelemen NewTechnologiesResearchCentre InstituteofComputerScience &DepartmentofCybernetics SilesianUniversity UniversityofWestBohemia Opava Plzen CzechRepublic CzechRepublic EvaZackova NewTechnologiesResearchCentre UniversityofWestBohemia Plzen CzechRepublic ISSN2193-9411 ISSN2193-942X (electronic) ISBN978-3-319-09667-4 ISBN978-3-319-09668-1 (eBook) DOI10.1007/978-3-319-09668-1 LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2014945745 SpringerChamHeidelbergNewYorkDordrechtLondon (cid:2)c SpringerInternationalPublishingSwitzerland2015 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpartofthe materialisconcerned,specificallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuseofillustrations,recitation,broad- casting,reproductiononmicrofilmsorinanyotherphysicalway,andtransmissionorinformationstorage andretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilarmethodologynowknown orhereafterdeveloped.Exemptedfromthislegalreservationarebriefexcerptsinconnectionwithreviews orscholarly analysis ormaterial suppliedspecifically forthepurposeofbeingentered andexecuted ona computersystem,forexclusive usebythepurchaser ofthework.Duplication ofthis publication orparts thereofispermittedonlyundertheprovisionsoftheCopyrightLawofthePublisher’slocation,initscur- rentversion,andpermissionforusemustalways beobtained fromSpringer. 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Printedonacid-freepaper SpringerispartofSpringerScience+BusinessMedia(www.springer.com) Preface This book is an edited collection of chapters based on the papers presented at the conference “BeyondAI: Artificial Dreams” held in Pilsenin November 2012 as the second in the three-year series of the Beyond AI conferences. The aim of the conference was to question deep-rooted ideas of artificial intelligence and castcriticalreflectiononmethods standingatits foundations.ArtificialDreams – also an allusion on another book of one of our co-authors, Hamid Ekbia – epitomise our controversial quest for non-biological intelligence, and therefore the contributors of this volume tried to fully exploit such a controversyin their respective chapters, which resulted in an interdisciplinary dialogue between ex- perts from engineering, natural sciences and humanities. While pursuing the Artificial Dreams, it hasbecome clearthatit is still more and more difficult to draw a clear divide between human and machine. And therefore this book tries to portrait such an image of what lies beyond artificial intelligence: we can see the disappearing human-machine divide, a very impor- tant phenomenon of nowadays technological society, the phenomenon which is oftenuncriticallypraised,orhypocriticallycondemned.Andsothisphenomenon found its place in the subtitle of the whole volume as well as in the title of the chapterofKevinWarwick,oneofthekeynotespeakersat“BeyondAI:Artificial Dreams”. I wouldliketothank allwhomadethe conferenceandthebookhappen. Spe- cial thanks go to all the authors, to my co-editors Eva Zackova and Jozef Kele- men, and to Pavel Ircing who tremendously helped all of us with the TEXnical issues. Jan Romportl Table of Contents The Disappearing Human-Machine Divide ........................... 1 Kevin Warwick How We’re Predicting AI – or Failing to ............................. 11 Stuart Armstrong, Kaj Sotala Intelligence Explosion Quest for Humankind ......................... 31 Eva Zackova Cyborg Tales: The Reinvention of the Human in the Information Age ... 45 Jelena Guga Heteronomous Humans and Autonomous Agents: Toward Artificial Relational Intelligence ............................................. 63 Hamid R. Ekbia Moral Enhancement and Artificial Intelligence: Moral AI?.............. 79 Julian Savulescu, Hannah Maslen Emotion, Artificial Intelligence, and Ethics .......................... 97 Kevin LaGrandeur The Stuff That Dreams Are Made of: AI in Contemporary Science Fiction ................................................... 111 Krzysztof Solarewicz Why Are We Afraid of Robots? The Role of Projection in the Popular Conception of Robots ............................................. 121 Michael Szollosy A Visit on the Uncanny Hill........................................ 133 Petr Sˇvarn´y Desire-Based Model of Reasoning ................................... 143 Ivo Pezlar A Computational Behavior Model for Life-Like Intelligent Agents ....... 159 Mohammadreza Alidoust, Modjtaba Rouhani VIII Table of Contents From Gobble to Zen: The Quest for Truly Intelligent Software and the Monte Carlo Revolution in Go...................................... 177 Ralf Funke Answering Curious Questions about Artificial Intelligence ............. 187 Jiˇr´ı Wiedermann Biological and Artificial Machines ................................... 201 V´ıt Bartoˇs Naturalness of Artificial Intelligence ................................ 211 Jan Romportl Index............................................................ 217 The Disappearing Human-Machine Divide Kevin Warwick School of Systems Engineering, Universityof Reading, UK [email protected] Abstract. In this article a look is taken at three areas in which the divide between humans and machines is rapidly diminishing. A look is takenfirstlyatculturingbiological neuronsandembodyingthemwithin a robot body, secondly the use of implants to link a human nervous systemwiththeInternetandthirdlyrecentresultsfromtheTuringImi- tationGamewhichconcentratesondifferencesinhumancommunication. In each case the technical background is described, practical results are discussed and finally implications and futuredirections are considered. Keywords: cyborgs, implant technology, bio-tech hybrids, human enhancement,Turing test. 1 Introduction Itisclearthatastechnologyimprovesandhumandependenceonthattechnology increasessothegapbetweenhumansandmachinesisrapidlydiminishing.Tothis endafocusofattentionhasbeenplacedoninterfacesbetweentechnologyandthe humanbrain.Thisisdonefromapracticalperspectivewithapplicationsinmind, howeversome of the implications are also considered. Results from experiments areconsideredintermsoftheirmeaningandapplicationpossibilities.Thearticle iswrittenfromthe perspectiveofscientificexperimentationopening uprealistic possibilities to be faced in the future rather than giving conclusive comments. Human implantation and the merger of biology and technology are important elements, in the next two sections at least. Inthisarticledifferentexperimentsinlinkingbiologyandtechnologytogether in a cybernetic fashion, essentially ultimately combining humans and machines in a relatively permanent merger, are considered. However a look is also taken, by means ofthe Turing test, at conversationalabilities andhow easy ordifficult it is to tell the difference between humans and machines. Each of the sections involves practical experiments as something that have been actually realised, i.e. we are looking here at actual real world experiments as opposed to mere philosophical speculations. The different experiment experiments are described in their own section. Whilstthereisdistinctoverlapbetweenthesections,theyeachthrowupindivid- ual considerations. Following a description of each investigation some pertinent issues on the topic are therefore discussed. (cid:2)c SpringerInternationalPublishingSwitzerland2015 1 J.Romportletal.(eds.),BeyondArtificial Intelligence, TopicsinIntelligentEngineeringandInformatics9,DOI:10.1007/978-3-319-09668-1_1 2 K. Warwick 2 Biological Brains in a Robot Body The first area considered might not be at all familiar to the reader. When one thinks of linking a brain with technology then it is probably in terms of a brain alreadyfunctioningwithinitsownbody.Herehoweverweconsiderthepossibility of a fresh merger where a brain, consisting of biological neurons, is grown and then given its own body in which to operate. Anexperimentalcontrolplatform,arobotbody,canmovearoundinadefined area purely under the control of such a network and the effects of the brain, controllingthebody,canbewitnessed.Investigationscanthusbeperformedinto memory formation and reward/punishment scenarios – elements that underpin the functioning and growth mechanisms of a brain. Growing networks of brain cells (around 100,000) in vitro begins by using enzymestoseparateneuronsobtainedfromfoetalrodentcorticaltissue.Theyare then grown (cultured) in a specialised chamber, in which they can be provided with controlled environmental conditions (e.g. appropriate temperature) and nutrients [1, 2]. An array of electrodes embedded in the base of the chamber (a Multi Electrode Array; MEA – see Figure 2) acts as a bi-directional electrical interface with which to provide signals to the culture and to monitor signals from the culture. This enables electrical signals to be supplied both for input stimulation and also for recordings to be taken as outputs from the culture. The neuronsinsuchculturesspontaneouslyconnect,communicate anddevelop, within a few weeks. With the MEA it is possible to separate the firings of small groups of neu- rons by monitoring the output signals on the electrodes. Thereby a picture of the global activity of the brain network can be formed. It is also possible to electrically stimulate the culture via any of the electrodes to induce neural ac- tivity. The multi-electrode array therefore forms a bi-directional interface with the cultured neurons [3, 4]. Thebrainiscoupledtoitsphysicalrobotbody[5].Sensorydatafedbackfrom the robotis deliveredto the culture,therebyclosingthe robot-cultureloop.The processingofsignalscanbebrokendownintotwodiscretesections(a)‘cultureto robot’,inwhichliveneuronalactivityisusedasthedecisionmakingmechanism for robot control, and (b) ‘robot to culture’, which involves an input mapping process, from robot sensor to stimulate the culture. The number of neurons in a brain depends on natural density variations in seeding the culture in the firstplace. The electrochemical activity ofthe culture is sampled and is used as input to the robot’s wheels. The robot’s (ultrasonic) sensor readings are converted into stimulation signals received by the culture, closing the feedback loop. Once the brain has grown for several days, an existing neuronal pathway through the culture is identified by searching for strong relationships between (input-output) pairs of electrodes. A rough input-output response map of the culture can be created by cycling through the electrodes in turn. In this way, a suitable input/output electrode pair can be chosen in order to provide an initial decision making pathway for the robot. This is then employed to control