Bernadette Filotas PAGAN SURVIVALS, SUPERSTITIONS AND POPULAR CULTURES IN EARLY MEDIEVAL PASTORAL LITERATURE Is medieval pastoral literature an accurate reflection of actual beliefs and practices in the early medieval West or simply of literary conventions in- herited by clerical writers? How and to what extent did Christianity and traditional pre-Christian beliefs and practices come into conflict, influence each other, and merge in popular culture? This comprehensive study examines early medieval popular culture as it appears in ecclesiastical and secular law, sermons, penitentials and other pastoral works – a selective, skewed, but still illuminating record of the be- liefs and practices of ordinary Christians. Concentrating on the five cen- turies from c. 500 to c. 1000, Pagan Survivals, Superstitions and Popular Cultures in Early Medieval Pastoral Literature presents the evidence for folk religious beliefs and piety, attitudes to nature and death, festivals, magic, drinking and alimentary customs. As such it provides a precious glimpse of the mu- tual adaptation of Christianity and traditional cultures at an important period of cultural and religious transition. Studies and Texts 151 Pagan Survivals, Superstitions and Popular Cultures in Early Medieval Pastoral Literature by Bernadette Filotas Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies This book has been published with the help of a grant from the Canadian Federation for the Humanities and Social Sciences, through the Aid to Scholarly Publications Programme, using funds provided by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. LIBRARY AND ARCHIVES CANADA CATALOGUING IN PUBLICATION Filotas, Bernadette, 1941- Pagan survivals, superstitions and popular cultures in early medieval pastoral literature / by Bernadette Filotas. (Studies and texts ; 151) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-88844-151-7 1. Pastoral literature, Latin–History and criticism. 2. Christian literature, Latin (Medieval and modern)–History and criticism. 3. Popular culture– Europe–Religious aspects–Christianity. 4. Popular culture–Europe–History –To 1500. 5. Popular culture in literature. 6. Paganism in literature. 7. Paganism–Europe–History–To 1500. 8. Superstition in literature. 9. Superstition–Europe–Religious aspects–Christianity. I. Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies. II. Title. III. Series: Studies and texts (Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies) ; 151. BL690.F54 2005 274(cid:78).03 C2005-900801-6 © 2005 by Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies 59 Queen’s Park Crescent East Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 2C4 www.pims.ca Printed in Canada For Thomas, Sophie, Joseph and Pascale Contents Acknowledgements x Abbreviations xi Introduction 1 1 Concepts, Contexts, Sources 12 1.1 Concepts 12 1.1.1 Paganism and superstition 12 Q 1.1.2 Pagan survivals 18 Q 1.1.3 Terminology 20 Q 1.1.4 Popular culture 25 1. 2 Context 28 1.2.1 Western European paganisms 28 Q 1.2.2 Christiani- zation and conversion 38 1.3 Sources–pastoral literature 42 1.3.1 Value and limitations 42 Q 1.3.2 Typology 51 Q 1.3.3 Incidental literature 61 Q 1.3.4 Complementary works 61 2 Idolatry, Gods and Supernatural Beings 65 2.1 Supernatural beings belonging to the pre-Christian tradition 69 2.1.1 Supernatural beings honoured in cults 70 Q 2.1.2 Super- natural beings as objects of belief only 80 Q 2.1.3 The origins of the gods 82 2.2 Effigies: idola and simulacra 84 2.3 Idolatry and natural phenomena 91 2.3.1 Gaul 91 Q 2.3.2 Iberia 92 2.4 The devil and demons 94 2.4.1 The devil 94 Q 2.4.2 Demons 95 2.5 The Christian tradition 97 2.5.1 Anomalous rituals in honour of the saints 98 Q 2.5.2 St. Michael the Archangel 99 Q 2.5.3 Pseudoprophetae, spurious saints and angels, letters from heaven 100 2.6 Offerings and rituals 105 2.6.1 Tangible offerings 106 Q 2.6.2 Sacrificial meals 111 Q 2.6.3 Anomalies in Christian devotions 117 Q 2.6.4 Oaths 118 viii CONTENTS 3 Nature 120 3.1 The cult of the heavens 120 3.1.1 Heavenly bodies 120 Q 3.1.2. The heavens and human affairs 132 3.2 The cult of men and animals 140 3.2.1 Men 140 Q 3.2.2 Animals 142 3.3 Cult of inanimate objects: trees, springs, stones, fire and the earth 145 3.3.1 Trees, springs and stones 145 Q 3.3.2 Fire and the hearth 148 Q 3.3.3 The earth 150 Q 3.3.4 The baptism of nature 151 4 Time 153 4.1 Seasonal cycle 155 4.1.1 New Year – the Calends of January 155 Q 4.1.2 Febru- ary rituals – dies spurci, spurcalia 172 Q 4.1.3 May rituals 173 Q 4.1.4 Midsummer – the feast of St. John the Baptist 175 Q 4.1.5 Other seasonal festivals 177 4.2 Liturgical cycle 178 4.2.1 Adaptations of pagan rituals 179 Q 4.2.2 In church 182 Q 4.2.3 Easter season 183 Q 4.2.4 Rogation days 184 4.3 Communal celebrations 185 4.3.1 Feasting and ritual drunkenness 186 Q 4.3.2 Other feasts 190 Q 4.3.3 Games 191 5 Space 193 5.1 Loci abhominati 195 5.1.1 Natural sites 195 Q 5.1.2 Man-made sites 200 5.2 Cult 204 5.3 Sacred space and magical rituals 210 6 Magic – Magicians and Beneficent Magic 219 6.1 Cunning men and cunning women and magicians 219 6.2 Soothsayers and divination 223 6.2.1 Specialists 227 Q 6.2.2 Divinatory techniques 238 6.3 Healers, Healing and Protection 248 Specialists 248 Q Techniques 251 7 Ambivalent and Destructive Magic 270 7.1 Ambivalent Magic 270 7.1.1 Specialists 270 Q 7.1.2 Generalists 281 Q 7.1.3 Obligator, cauculator/cauclearius/coclearius, cocriocus 294 7.2 The uses of enchantment, magic and sorcery 295 7.2.1 Love magic 295 Q 7.2.2 Magical harm 300 Q 7.2.3 Harmful Christian magic, liturgy and fasting 307 CONTENTS ix 7.3 Witches and werewolves 310 7.3.1 Witches and illusions 310 Q 7.3.2 Werewolves and shape-shifting 317 8 Death 318 8.1 Before the funeral 319 8.2 The funeral 323 8.2.1 Preparation of the body 323 Q 8.2.2 The burial 326 8.3 Commemoration 331 8.3.1 Banquets 331 Q 8.3.2 Memorials 335 Q 8.3.3 Vigils, violation of tombs and magic 336 8.4 Beliefs about the dead 337 9 Alimentary Restrictions 339 9.1 Pastoral literature and dietary taboos 339 9.1.1 Prohibitions of flesh-foods: blood and carrion 341 Q 9.1.2 Prohibitions of polluted food 346 Q 9.1.3 Pollution through human contact 350 9.2 The origin of medieval alimentary taboos 350 9.3.1 Dietary prohibitions and the Christian frontier 352 Q 9.3.2 Magic 354 Conclusion 357 Word List 361 Bibliography 365 1 Sources – annotated 365 1.1 Councils 365 Q 1.2 Bishops’s capitularies 369 Q 1.3 Canonic collections 370 Q 1.4 Capitularies 372 Q 1.5 Peni- tentials 373 Q 1.6 Sermons 378 Q 1.7 Incidental literature 382 Q Tracts and minor works 383 2 Complementary works 384 3 Studies 386 Index 409 Acknowledgements I am happy to have this opportunity to acknowledge my great debt to M. Pierre Boglioni, for his generous help and advice, and for his untiring encouragement and kindness. My grateful thanks also to Mr. William D. McCready and M. Joseph- Claude Poulin for their helpful comments and proposed corrections. I should also like to express my appreciation to the Départment d’histoire of the Université de Montréal for its financial support, and to the staff of the Bibliothèque des lettres et sciences humaines for the friendliness and good-hum- oured efficiency which made the many hours I spent in the library so rewarding and pleasant an experience. I also thank Mr. Larry Eshelman for making the library of St. Paul’s University, Ottawa, available to me. My special gratitude for their help and encouragement goes to Mary Ann Kim, Margaret Moore, Barbara and Rae Brown, Andrea Blanar, Ava Couch and, most particularly, to Charles Giguère, to whom I owe more than I can ever repay.