José M. Alvarez-Suarez Editor Bee Products - Chemical and Biological Properties Bee Products - Chemical and Biological Properties José M. Alvarez-Suarez Editor Bee Products - Chemical and Biological Properties Editor José M. Alvarez-Suarez Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud Universidad de Las Américas Quito Ecuador ISBN 978-3-319-59688-4 ISBN 978-3-319-59689-1 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-59689-1 Library of Congress Control Number: 2017953371 © Springer International Publishing AG 2017 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. 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Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Contents Part I Honey 1 Botanical Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Estefanía Sánchez Reyes and José Sánchez Sanchéz 2 Sensory Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Silvia Sánchez Durán and José Sánchez Sanchéz 3 Chemical Composition of Honey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Celestino Santos-Buelga and Ana M. González-Paramás 4 Honey Health Benefits and Uses in Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Hana Scepankova, Jorge A. Saraiva, and Letícia M. Estevinho Part II Propolis 5 Phenolic Composition of Propolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Celestino Santos-Buelga and Ana M. González-Paramás 6 Propolis and Geopropolis Volatiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Maria Graça Miguel and Ana Cristina Figueiredo 7 T he Chemical and Biological Properties of Propolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Weam Siheri, Sameah Alenezi, Jonans Tusiimire, and David G. Watson Part III Royal Jelly 8 C hemical Composition of Royal Jelly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Xiaofeng Xue, Liming Wu, and Kang Wang 9 V olatile Compounds of Royal Jelly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Maria G. Miguel and Soukaïna El-Guendouz v vi Contents 10 Royal Jelly: Health Benefits and Uses in Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Manuel Viuda-Martos, José A. Pérez-Alvarez, and Juana Fernández-López Part IV Bee Pollen 11 Chemical Composition of Bee Pollen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Adriane Alexandre Machado De-Melo and Ligia Bicudo de Almeida-Muradian 12 H ealth Benefits and Uses in Medicine of Bee Pollen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Adriane Alexandre Machado De-Melo and Ligia Bicudo de Almeida-Muradian Part V Honey Bee Venom 13 Chemical Composition of Bee Venom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Sok Cheon Pak 14 Health Benefits and Uses in Medicine of Bee Venom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Sok Cheon Pak Part I Honey Chapter 1 Botanical Classification Estefanía Sánchez Reyes and José Sánchez Sanchéz Contents 1.1 Melissopalynological Analysis 3 1.1.1 Palynology: A Young Science—Applications 3 1.1.2 The Pollen Grain 4 1.1.3 Pollen Morphology 5 1.1.4 Methodology 12 1.2 Monofloral, Polyfloral and Honeydew Honey 15 1.2.1 Honeydew Honey 17 References 18 1.1 Melissopalynological Analysis 1.1.1 Palynology: A Young Science—Applications In 1944, Hyde and Williams coined the term palynology to name the science respon- sible for the study of pollen grains and fungal spores. It was from the middle of the twentieth century onwards that the study of these particles progressed considerably, thanks to the appearance of electron microscope (Knoll and Ruska 1932) which improved the resolution and magnification reached with the optical microscope at the beginning of the seventeenth century. Size or type, number or position of apertures or even sporoderm ornamentation of pollen grains and fungal spores can be used as taxonomic characters for the identification, differentiation and classification of plant species or fungi they are E.S. Reyes (*) • J.S. Sanchéz Hispano-Luso Institute for Agricultural Research (CIALE), University of Salamanca, Villamayor Campus, C/Río Duero N°12, 37185 Villamayor (Salamanca), Spain e-mail: [email protected] © Springer International Publishing AG 2017 3 J.M. Alvarez-Suarez (ed.), Bee Products - Chemical and Biological Properties, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-59689-1_1 4 E.S. Reyes and J.S. Sanchéz coming from. For that reason, the study of pollen grains and fungal spores has its application in disciplines apparently as disparate as vegetal taxonomy, paleopaly- nology (study of palynomorphs present in different sediments for paleoclimatic and paleoecological reconstructions), aeropalynology (airborne pollen and fungal spores content), medicine (related to allergies) or even in forensic palynology, agronomy (control of crop pollination or phytopathogen detection, among others), biodeterio- ration, etc. and of course, the subject that concerns us in this book, melissopalynol- ogy (study of pollen content and fungal spores in honeys and other hive products). In honey, pollen grains come mainly from the plant species foraged by honey bees (Ohe et al. 2004), so that palynological studies provide a good fingerprint of the plant species where the honeys come from (botanical origin). However, we could find pollen grains in the nectar as a consequence of secondary (pollen from the inside of the hive), tertiary (inclusions of pollen grains during the extraction process) and quaternary (aerial contamination) enrichment (Corvucci et al. 2015). As such it appears exactly in Directive 2014/63/EU “additional pollen in honey can come from pollen on bees’ hair, from pollen in the air inside the hive and from pollen that was packed in cells by bees and released as a result of the accidental opening of those cells during the extraction of honey by food business operators”. On the other hand, the entire pollen spectrum is consistent with the flora of a particu- lar region depending thus on the agricultural and forest conditions where a honey was produced, giving an idea of the geographical origin (Ohe et al. 2004). In that sense, markers of geographical origin are generally pollen grains found in lower percentage as Conceição Silva and Ribeiro Dos Santos (2014) and Corvucci et al. (2015) reported. Quantitative and qualitative analysis are carried out in order to determine the botani- cal and geographical origin of honeys, royal jelly, bee pollen and propolis, which con- tribute to the quality control of hive products (together with sensory analyses). In addition, they allow the identification of possible fraudulent adulteration or contamina- tion and provide important information on honey extraction and/or filtration. 1.1.2 The Pollen Grain The pollen grain or microgametophyte is the male germ element responsible for the fertilization in flowers and subsequent seed formation. It is the male gametophyte of seed plants (spermatophytes) and it is formed in the androecium of the flower, com- posed of stamens (microsporophylls) consisting of a filament and the anther. Anthers are usually two-lobed. Each anther lobe develops two pollen sacs or microsporangia. Pollen sacs are composed of sporogenous tissue formed by a mass of cells called pollen mother cells or arquesporium, which undergo reduction division (meiosis). The four haploid cells generated form a tetrad within the mother cell until their maturation. Inside each of these microspores, an uneven mitotic division occurs, generating two morphologically and functionally different nuclei: the vegetative nucleus, larger in size, with vacuoles and reserves, is responsible for the formation of the pollen tube 1 Botanical Classification 5 and it performs a nutritional function for the generative nucleus (which could be placed in an eccentric position), smaller and fusiform, which will generate (through mitosis) two sperm nuclei or male gametes. Simultaneously to the formation of the generative and vegetative nuclei, they will make their own wall, so that the mother cell wall degenerates. Subsequently, the wall is thickened and it is possible to differentiate between two layers: an external or exine and an internal or intine (that is generated after the aforementioned), which give pol- len grain a great resistance against the adverse atmospheric conditions to which it will be exposed, thus avoiding possible dehydration. Once the pollen grains reach this stage of development, they will be dissemi- nated thanks to dehiscence of the anther, which will occur in response to certain environmental conditions. In general, pollen grains are released in isolation (monad), although sometimes, in some species, they are released in groups of 4 (tetrad), as in the case of the family Ericaceae and even in groups of 16 grains (poliads) in the genus Acacia Mill., or in pollinia as occurs in Orquidaceae and Asclepiadaceae. 1.1.3 Pollen Morphology A specific terminology, accepted internationally by palynologists, is used for the determination and description of the microscopic characteristics of pollen grains. Below is a summary of the main pollen characteristics that form the basis for the identification of pollen grains: polarity and symmetry, size and color, shape, sporo- derm, ornamentation and apertural system. 1.1.3.1 Polarity and Symmetry As indicated above, pollen grains are three-dimensional structures (with volume), so they may have polarity and symmetry. If within a tetrad, we analyze a monad individually (Fig. 1.1) we can define the zone that is closest to the center of the tet- rad as the proximal pole, and the distal pole as that one furthest from the tetrad. The line connecting the two poles, passing through the center of the monad and the tet- rad, coinciding with the axis of rotation of an imaginary ellipsoid, will be called the polar axis. The equatorial diameter corresponds to the perpendicular axis to this polar axis that crosses the grain by its middle part. We say a pollen grain is in polar view, when the polar axis coincides with the optical axis of the observer. However, an equatorial view of a pollen grain is one in which the equatorial plane is directed towards the observer. Erdtman (1952) defined as apolar those grains in which no pole is seen once liberated from the anther, whereas the polar ones present these zones more or less differentiated. Within the latter, we differentiate the isopolar grains, when the equatorial plane deter- mines two polar zones more or less similar, and the heteropolar ones, in which the poles are clearly different either in shape, ornamentation or apertural system.