BAYʿA : SUCCESSION, ALLEGIANCE, AND RITUALS OF LEGITIMIZATION IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD by LAUREN A. CARUSO (Under the Direction of Kenneth Honerkamp) ABSTRACT Bayʿa: Succession, Allegiance, and Rituals of Legitimization in the Islamic World presents a comprehensive overview of the origins and evolution of the ritual of bayʿa, or the Islamic oath of allegiance, from its foundations during the lifetime of the Prophet Muḥammad to its current use by modern governments and political organizations. The intent of this work is to present a cohesive picture of its transformation from a reciprocal and contractual relationship between a prophetic leader and his community, to a highly stylized ritual of power employed for the purpose of legitimizing various rulers and systems of governance. Additionally, emphasis will be placed on both the changes to the physical presentation and ritual performance of the bayʿa though time, as well as the inherent transformation of the meaning and function of the ritual. INDEX WORDS: Bayʿa, Islamic Ritual, Legitimization, Political Authority, Ceremony BAYʿA : SUCCESSION, ALLEGIANCE, AND RITUALS OF LEGITIMIZATION IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD By Lauren A. Caruso The University of Georgia, 2013 A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF ARTS ATHENS, GEORGIA 2013 © 2013 Lauren A. Caruso All Rights Reserved BAYʿA : SUCCESSION, ALLEGIANCE, AND RITUALS OF LEGITIMIZATION IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD by LAUREN A. CARUSO Major Professor: Kenneth Honerkamp Committee: Carolyn Medine Alan Godlas Electronic Version Approved: Mauren Grasso Dean of the Graduate School The University of Georgia December 2013 iv DEDICATION To Josh, my constant companion v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES CHAPTE R 1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 1 2 BAYʿA IN THE CONTEXT OF THE EARLIEST SOURCES ............................... 5 3 RITUAL DEVELOPMENTB: AYʿA FROMJĀ HILIYYA TO THE MEDIEVAL CALIPHAL AGE .......................................................................................................... 20 4 THBE AYʿA IN THE MODERN MUSLIM WORLD – THE CONTINUING SEARCH FOR LEGITIMACY AND AUTHORITY ..............................................44 5 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................65 vi LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 1: Sultan Vahdeddin, the last accession ceremony in Ottoman history ...........36 1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The function of ritual in recreating unique and sacred moments in history also tends to convey the image of individuals and communities locked in static repetitions of formalized and mechanical practices. However, the belief that rituals maintain their form and function throughout time has been abandoned by most contemporary scholars of Ritual Studies. Regardless of a ritual’s sacrosanct origins, it is imperative for rituals, and those who practice them, to possess a degree of adaptability in order to maintain relevance in highly fluctuating environments. This malleability allows rituals to be adjusted to fit existing constraints and demands; often, this process results in dramatic alterations to the original practice. Rituals, especially those that are political in nature, are constantly modified to fulfill the current needs of a community, and to provide acceptable ways of defining social boundaries and communicating political power. Political rituals are essential in displaying political authority by utilizing signs and symbolic action to emphasize a shared sense of tradition on which to base a community. According to Catherine Bell, political rituals “demonstrate the legitimacy of these values and goals by 1 establishing their iconicity with the perceived values and orders of the cosmos.” One such ritual is the Islamic religio-political “oath of allegiance” or “contract” known absa yʿa . At once political and sacredb,a yʿa has its origins in pre- 1 Catherine Bell, Ritual: Perspectives and Dimensions (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 129. 2 Islamic tribal alliances, and still exists today in some areas of the Islamic world, and whilbea yʿa refers to many different rituals of commercial and private transaction, the central focus here is on the use of thbea yʿa in caliphal accession to power and succession. The aim of this paper will be to examine the manner in which political rituals such absa yʿa have been altered over time. The evolution of the rituals of caliphal accession and succession from simple yet profound displays of loyalty and obedience to God and the Prophet Muḥammad, to little more than exhibitions of political theatre, is both functional and symbolic. From a pragmatic standpoint, rituals and rites had to adapt in order to reflect the changing needs of an Islamic empire that was rapidly expanding, both geographically and demographically. This thesis intends to offer a comprehensive understanding of the ritual, and how it has been adapted throughout history to fit numerous scenarios and systems. Chapter one, entitleAd Literary Understanding: Bayʿa in the Context of the Earliest Sources, will attempt to illustrate how thbea ya ritual was perceived and understood by early Islamic sources, including but not limited tḥoa dīth collections, Islamic histories, anQd urʼānic exegesi s . This chapter will serve to lay the foundation for the overall thesis by presenting the earliest understanding of the ritual and its functions from within the Islamic tradition and sets the stage for the development of the ritual during the medieval period. Chapter tw oR,itual Development: Bayʿa from Jāhiliyya to the Medieval Caliphal Age, will present a chronological analysis of ritual development during the formative Islamic period, and will contrast the unique, particular, and simple act of the Prophetibca yʿa with the latebra yʿa rituals of the first four caliphs, paying 3 particular interest to the physical presentation and performance o bfayʿa . The second section will continue to highlight the changing nature obfa yʿa ceremonies and the surrounding political rituals during the later dynastic period of the medieval caliphates. By examining the progression and elaboration of these political rituals, it can be argued that th beayʿa , and surrounding procedures, developed from rituals of power construction into mere symbolic attempts at political legitimization through highly stylized ritual theatre which carries into the modern period. The final section of Chapter Two will address thbea yʿa within the tradition of Sufīsm . While much of the original function and practice of thbea yʿa changed dramatically throughout the medieval period, the ritual maintained its intended purpose withi Snufī orders. Additionally, the essential role of thbea yʿa in transmitting divine knowledge and power between disciples and their masters will be explored. Chapter threeU, nder the Shadow of God:Th e Bayʿa in the Modern Muslim World , explores the ways in which thbea yʿa has continued to be adapted and fashioned by leaders in the Islamic world to define and secure abstract concepts like legitimacy, loyalty, and fidelity. The first section of this chapter will deal with how and why thbea yʿa was utilized by assorted political leaders in the 20th century as a tool for cultivating nationalism and honing state-craft. The second section of the chapter intends to address the many figures that used th beayʿa to seek political authority outside of prescribed and internationally accepted norms. The chapter will end with a section devoted to the use of thbea yʿa and its appropriation by extremist and rebel organizations in the modern Middle East.