BASIC GRAMMAR OF THE INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE IDO Sslonik /www.twirpx.com/ Sslonik A concise guide to this practical international language which has been developed by linguists and scientists and is available for use by all who wish to communicate across language barriers in the easiest and most economical way possible Contents 1. Introduction 2. Basic grammar 3. A small selection of books in and about Ido 4. Further information 5. The language barrier / La linguala barilo INTRODUCTION The international language Ido has been developed by linguists and scientists who included the philosopher-mathematician Louis Couturat and the philologist Otto Jespersen. It is both a written and a spoken language. It has been put to the test of practical use in correspondence and in hundreds of books and magazines. It has also been used for holiday gatherings and conferences where people from many countries have found themselves able to discuss a wide variety of matters directly with each other. This eminently practical and easy language is indeed remarkable. Yet its existence is not widely known, partly owing to the scepticism of those who find it difficult to believe that such a thing is possible and who are determined not to allow their prejudiced opinion to be upset by exposing themselves to the evidence. The fact that Ido has achieved all that it already has is a tribute to those who refused to be dissuaded by the cries of "It can't be done" or "It won't work." It is the aim of this booklet not only to demonstrate (for the benefit of those with open minds) that Ido is practical, but also to assist in spreading knowledge of it. The small vocabularies which follow the basic grammar are intended to include the more useful and frequently found words. They are sufficient for obtaining a very useful knowledge of Ido, enough to understand many ordinary texts and to begin correspondence in the language. More extensive vocabularies (such as Dyer's) tend to be more than a beginner requires, so it is hoped that this publication fills a need for the speaker of English who wishes to try the language at a modest cost. BASIC GRAMMAR The alphabet of Ido is as in English: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. It therefore contains only letters which are commonly found (often with others) on keyboards in many countries. There are no accented letters, so Ido can be typed, telexed or transferred between computers and programs without the slightest difficulty. Pronunciation. The vowels a e i o u are pronounced much as in Italian or Spanish, or approximately as follows: a as in father, e between its sound in get and in vein, i as in marine, o between its sound in got and in go, and u as in rule. (These vowels are not diphthongs; do not pronounce a as in take, i as in time, o like the ou in mould, or u as in mule.) There are two diphthongs: au pronounced as ow in owl, and (in a few words) eu which is pronounced like the vowels e and u run together. Because there are not many vowel sounds, exact pronunciation of them is less critical than it is in some languages where vowels and dipththongs are many and the distinctions are finer. Exact pronunciation of each vowel is less important in Ido than making each clearly recognisable. Most consonants are pronounced as in English. But c is always pronounced like ts in bats, g is always hard as in get and give, h is never silent, j is as in French and like the s in pleasure, r is always sounded or trilled a little as in prize, s is always sharp as in same and bus (never like z as is the s in comes), and x is as in expert. The digraph ch is pronounced as in church, and sh as in ship; qu is pronounced as in quick. Accent. All words of more than one syllable are stressed on the last syllable but one, except for infinitives which are stressed on the last syllable. For example, lIbro, sImpla, Apud, grAnda, pardOno, avErtas, mashIno, trovEbla. Infinitives all end with the syllable -ar which takes the accent: trovAr, parolAr, studiAr. In other words in which the last vowel is immediately preceded by an i or a u, these two vowels are treated as forming one syllable. For example, studias and linguo are pronounced stUdias and lInguo. The definite article ('the' in English) is la as in la ponto (the bridge), and la lagi (the lakes). There is no indefinite article (a or an in English). So navo means ship or a ship according to context. In some languages, such as Russian, there are no articles at all, so the retention of one article in Ido is a reasonable compromise between languages such as English which have two articles, and those with none. The word la is invariable, like English "the" but unlike the corresponding words in French, German, Italian and Spanish. There is also no (grammatical) gender in Ido, consequently no need to learn that a word is masculine or feminine. The vocabulary of Ido is based on that of the main European languages: English, French, German, Italian, Russian and Spanish. In general, each word is based on as many of these languages as possible, so that many words in Ido are recognisable to people in many countries. Words of particular types (parts of speech) are in most cases indicated by their endings, and this makes it easy to see the structure of sentences. The root of each word (the part to which the ending is added) is never varied. Some words, such as prepositions, conjunctions and some adverbs do not have special endings. For example, en = in, sur = on, se = if. Nouns in the singular end in -o: domo = house; nubo = cloud; libro = book; ucelo = bird; urbo = town. Plural nouns are formed by replacing the final -o with -i: domi = houses; libri = books; flori = flowers; repasti = meals. Adjectives end in -a: bona = good; granda = big; vera = true; simpla = simple; saja = wise; forta = strong. Comparatives and superlatives are made using the words plu, min, maxim and minim. For example, plu forta = stronger, and min forta = less strong. Similarly, maxim granda = biggest or largest, while minim saja = least wise. Adverbs are mostly derived from adjectives by changing the ending to -e: simple = simply; vere = truly; bone = well; rapide = quickly. As in English, adjectives do not change their form. They may be placed either before (as usually in English) or after (as usually in French) the noun which they qualify. For example, reda floro or floro reda, granda tablo or tablo granda, nova libri or libri nova, granda domi or domi granda. Verbs in the infinitive end in -ar: kantar = to sing; skribar = to write; vidar = to see; flugar = to fly. The present tense is formed by replacing -ar by -as: vidas = see(s); lernas = learn(s); trovas = find(s). The past tense is formed with the ending -is: vidis = saw; kantis = sang; movis = moved. The future tense is formed with the ending -os: vidos = will see; trovos = will find. The conditional uses the ending -us: il venus se il povus = he would come if he were able. The imperative and hortative ending is -ez: venez! = come!; irez! = go!; ni irez = let us go. The ending -anta corresponds to -ing in English when it means the active present participle: fluganta uceli = flying birds; persono skribanta letro = a person writing a letter; kantanta puerino = a singing girl. Use of the letters a, i, and o to indicate present, past and future, as in the endings as, is and os is applied also to the active and passive participles. The ending -inta forms the active past participle: fluginta uceli = birds which have flown; hundo dorminta = a dog which has slept. Similarly the ending -onta produces the active future participle: stono falonta = a stone that is going to fall; la puerino kantonta = the girl who is going to sing. The ending -ata gives the present passive participle: letro skribata = a letter (that is) being written; vorto kantata = a word (being) sung. The past form has the ending -ita: letro skribita = a letter (that has been) written; lavita vesti = washed clothes; celita klefo = hidden key; libro perdita = a lost book. The future form ends in -ota: letro skribota = a letter (that is going) to be written; la jetota bulo = the ball that is (yet) to be thrown. Never use "to have" or "to do" (as we do in English) as an auxiliary to form tenses. Ni esas vidata = we are (being) seen. Ni esas vidita = we have been seen (literally "we are having-been-seen"). Ni vidis la kato = we saw the cat, or we have seen the cat. Ni esas trovota = we are (going) to be found, or we will be found. Ni esis salvata da nia hundo = we were (being) saved by our dog. Ni esis (ja) salvita = we had been saved, or we were (already) saved. An active verb is made passive by using the suffix es between the root and the required verb ending. For example, vidas means 'sees', but videsas (vid-es-as) means 'is seen'. So an alternative, shorter way of saying ni esas trovota is ni trovesos = we will be found. Similarly, ol trovesis = it was found. The suffix -ab- is used with verbs as an optional substitute for equivalent longer forms ending in -inta, and preceded by the appropriate form of the verb esar (to be). This is shown by the following examples: skribabis (sbrib-ab-is) = esis skribinta = had written; vendabos (vend-ab-os) = esos vendinta = will have sold; vidabas (vid-ab-as) = esas vidinta = has seen ('is having seen'). The main personal pronouns are: me - I, me tu - you (intimate singular form, like French and Italian 'tu', German 'du') vu - you (singular) ilu or il - he, him elu or el - she, her olu or ol - it lu - he, she or it ni - we, us vi - you (plural of 'vu') li - they (plural of 'lu') onu or on - one su - oneself, himself, herself, itself, themselves. Note that me means both "I" and "me", just as in English we do not have separate words for "you" as subject or object. The full forms of il, el, ol are ilu, elu, olu, but the shorter forms are often used. Lu is very useful in situations when we would otherwise need to say il od el (he or she) since it covers both possibilities. The reflexive pronoun su is used when the object is the same person or thing as the subject. For example, el vidis su = she saw herself. Possessive pronouns are formed by adding the ending a to the personal pronouns (to the full form in the case of ilu, elu, olu). The main ones are: mea - my, mine vua - your, yours (singular) ilua - his elua - her, hers olua - its lua - his, her, hers, its nia - our, ours via - your, yours (plural) lia - their, theirs onua - one's sua - one's own, his own, her own, its own, their own. For example: ilu havas elua libro = he has her book; ol esas certe elua = it is certainly hers; nia kato e vua hundo esas en mea domo = our cat and your dog are in my house. Derivation. Any adjective can be turned into an adverb by replacing the final -a with an -e. Similarly, from any verb can be obtained a noun (with the noun ending o), meaning the corresponding action. For example, from vidar (to see) we get vido = (the act of) seeing or sight. From dankar (to thank) we get danko = thanking or thanks. From promenar (to walk) we get promeno = walking, or a walk. From kurar (to run) we get kuro = running, or a run. The ending -ing in English has two meanings which must be distinguished. In "the running horse" the word "running" is an adjective and is translated as kuranta (as in la kuranta kavalo). However, in "running is a pleasure" the word "running" is a noun and is translated as kuro as in kuro esas plezuro. An adjective can be made into a noun by using the ending -o, the meaning of the noun being someone or something which has that quality. For example, from giganta (gigantic) we get giganto = a giant; from bela (beautiful) we derive belo (a beauty). Similarly, from parolanta (speaking) we get parolanto = speaker, or someone now speaking, from sequanta (following) we derive sequanto = follower, and from employata (employed) we get employato = employee. When a noun root is given the ending a the resulting adjective has the same meaning. A couple of examples will make this clear. Thus, from the noun papero (paper) the adjective papera describes something which is paper, as in papera chapelo = paper hat. Similarly, from metalo (metal) we get metala (of metal) as in metala taso = metal cup. More often, adjectives are formed from nouns by adding a suffix. The general- purpose suffix for forming an adjective is -al-, which is placed between the root and the adjective ending -a. For example, from naturo we get naturala, and from papero we get paperala as in paperala industrio = paper industry. Similarly from lego (law) we derive legala = legal (related to law), and from manuo (hand) we get manuala = manual or by hand. The suffix al can be used also with verb roots, as in edukala = educational (from edukar = to educate). A verb can be derived from an adjective by use of a suitable suffix, such as -ig-. For example, from mola (soft) we get moligar = to soften. Similarly, from intensa (intense) we get intensigar = to intensify. From varma (warm) we get varmigar = to warm (make something warm). Compare this with varmeskar = to become warm. Note that a suffix must always be used - we cannot say "varmar" which would be ambiguous (and illogical). To derive a verb from a noun the appropriate suffix must be used, according to the intended meaning of the verb. In an international language it is essential to make the meaning clear, since different languages give different meanings (and sometimes more than one meaning) to verbs derived from nouns (as, for example, with the English verb "to stone"). So from the noun martelo (hammer) we use the suffix -ag- (indicating action) to obtain the verb martelagar = to hammer. This also means that we can go on to derive the word martelago = (the act of) hammering. Similarly, we cannot turn the noun salo (salt) into a verb just by substituting a verb ending but must include a suffix such as -iz- (indicating addition of one thing to another) so as to get salizar = to salt (add salt to). Since an adverb can be made from an adjective, and an adjective from a noun, so we can also make an adverb from a noun. For example, from hemo (home) we get heme = at home. Similarly from nokto (night) we can form nokte = at night, or by night. Derivation of a variety of words from one word root is an important part of the language's economy and flexibility. So from the root skrib- (verb skribar = to write) we can derive skribo meaning 'writing' (the act of writing), skribado (prolonged writing), skribilo (a writing instrument of any kind), skribesos (will be written), skribala (the adjective), skribita (written), skriburo (a writing, i.e. something written), and so on. Compound words may be formed freely. The last element in the combination is the main one in determining the meaning, while the preceding element only modifies the meaning. For example, skrib-tablo means a type of table (a writing table). Similarly, vapor- navo = steamship, vid-punto = viewpoint or point of view, kristal-klara = crystal- clear, sub-mara = undersea, amo-letro = love letter, te-taso = teacup, mar-salo = sea salt. The use of a hyphen is optional but helpful as it makes it easier to see the make-up of compound words; vidpunto and vid-punto are equally valid. The use of the letter o between two nouns which are joined is optional, but advisable where it makes pronunciation easier. So mar-salo and maro-salo are equally valid, as are vid-punto and vido-punto, but letro-buxo is preferable to "letr-buxo". It is important to note that nouns cannot be used unaltered as though they were also adjectives, as is often the case in English. So sea salt must not be translated by "maro salo", but must be translated either as one word, mar-salo or maro-salo, or by using the adjective for 'sea' (marala) as in marala salo, or by using the word for 'of' (di) as in salo di maro. Similarly, 'love letter' is letro di amo or amo-letro but not "amo letro". Word order is similar to that in English, with some exceptions. Adjectives may precede or follow the noun they qualify. Shorter adjectives generally precede the noun, and longer ones generally follow it, but this is not obligatory. Adverbs may be placed anywhere that allows the meaning to be clear. The subject generally comes before the direct object, but if this order is reversed then the direct object must show this by adding the letter n. For example, la hundo chasas la kato (the dog chases the cat), but la hundon chasas la kato (the cat chases the dog); la viro qua vidas el (the man who sees her), but la viro quan el vidas (the man whom she sees). The indirect object is always indicated by the use of a preposition. For example, el donis la buxo ad il = she gave the box to him. Never imitate the English sentence "she gave him the box" - where there is no preposition to distinguish the indirect object from the direct one. A statement is turned into a question not by changing the word order but by starting the sentence with the word ka. For example, la treno esis hike = the train was here, but ka la treno esis hike? = was the train here? Other question words include kande (when), quale (how), ube (where) and quo (what). For example, ube nun esas la treno? or ube la treno esas nun? = where is the train now? Prefixes and suffixes are very important and give great flexibility to the language. The most useful ones are listed here. A few of these are in fact ordinary words which are therefore also used on their own (such as ne = not), but most are true prefixes or suffixes and can be used only as such, not as separate words. Prefixes des- denotes the direct opposite: des-agreabla = disagreeable; des-facila = difficult; des-avantajo = disadvantage. dis- denotes separation: dis-ruptar = to disrupt; dis-semar = to disseminate, to scatter. ex- ex-, late, retired: ex-prezidanto; ex-oficiro. mi- half, semi-, demi-: mi-horo = half an hour; mi-cirklo = semicircle. mis- denotes wrong action: mis-pronuncar = to mispronounce; mis-uzo = misuse. ne- un-, im-, ir-, non-: ne-posibla = impossible; ne-populara = unpopular. par- used with verbal roots to denote thorough action: par-lektar = to read thoroughly. pre- pre-, before: pre-dicar = to predict; pre-nomo = first name. pseudo- pseudo-, false: pseudo-religioza = pseudo-religious. retro- retro-, backward (used with verbal roots): retro-irar = to go back(ward); retro- tirar = to draw back(ward). ri- denotes repetition (used with verbal roots): ri-facar = to do over again; ri-elektar = to re-elect. sen- -less, without: sen-denta = toothless; sen-avantaja = without advantage. stif- step-: stif-matro = stepmother. vice- vice-, deputy: vice-prezidanto = vice-president. Suffixes -ach- gives an unfavourable or disparaging meaning: hund-acho = cur; infant-acho = brat; dom-acho = hovel. -ad- indicates repeated or continued action (added to verbal roots): from frapar = to strike, frap-adar = to strike repeatedly, frap-ado = a beating; parolado = a speech. -ag- is the root of the word ag-ar (to do, to act) and is used with nouns (especially tools) to form verbs meaning to act with the tool: from martelo (hammer), martel- agar = to hammer. -aj- (added to adjective or noun) denotes something possessing the quality or made from the material indicated: bel-ajo = beautiful object; metal-ajo = something made of metal; (added to a transitive or mixed verb) indicates the object of the action: send- ajo = something sent; drink-ajo = a drink; dic-ajo = saying; (added to an intransitive verb) means something which acts in the sense of the verb: bril-ajo = something shining; exist-ajo = something existing. -al- relating to: naciona-ala = national; autun-ala = autumnal; natur-ala = natural; manu-ala = manual. -an- in forming a noun, denotes a member, inhabitant or adherent: senat-ano = senator; klub-ano = club member; vilaj-ano = villager; in forming an adjective (most often with the name of a country), it is used to indicate belonging: japoniana = Japanese; nederlandana = Dutch. -ar- denotes a collection or group of objects or beings: hom-aro = humanity; libr-aro = library, book collection; har-aro = hair; muton-aro = flock of sheep. -ari- indicates the object or recipient of an action: pag-ario = payee. -atr- like: metal-atra = metallic, metal-like; blu-atra = bluish. -e- coloured, having the colour of: or-ea = golden; oranj-ea = orange(-coloured). -ebl- -able, -ible: drink-ebla = drinkable; lekt-ebla = readable; kred-ebla = credible. -ed- -ful, contents of: pinch-edo = a pinch; glas-edo = glass-ful. -eg- extremely, to a great extent, very large: pluv-egar = to rain very heavily; pluv-ego = downpour; rich-ega = extremely rich; dom-ego = mansion. -em- inclined to (added to verbal roots): labor-ema = industrious; atak-ema = aggressive; parol-ema = talkative.